1️⃣1️⃣ தரம் 11 · அலகு 7

இலங்கையில் இயற்கை இடர்கள்

Natural hazards in Sri Lanka

★★★★★ வெள்ளம்நிலச்சரிவுவறட்சி

கடந்த அலகில் உலகின் இயற்கை இடர்களைப் பார்த்தோம். இலங்கைக்கு பெரும் நிலநடுக்கம் / எரிமலை இடர்கள் பெருமளவில் இல்லை — நாங்கள் stable Indian Plate-ன் நடுவில் இருக்கிறோம். ஆனால் (1) வெள்ளம், (2) நிலச்சரிவு, (3) வறட்சி, (4) சூறாவளி, (5) கடற்கரை அரிப்பு, (6) சுனாமி (2004), (7) மின்னல் தாக்குதல் — இவை SL-க்கு மிகவும் relevant. இந்த அலகில் இலங்கைக்கு வரும் இடர்களின் பகிர்வு, காரணம், தாக்கம், மற்றும் Disaster Management Centre (DMC), DMA 2005, Sendai நிலையில் SL strategy — பற்றி அறிவோம்.

உரு 7.10 — பேரிடர் மேலாண்மை சக்கரம் (Disaster Management Cycle): Mitigation → Preparedness → Response → Recovery. NIE பாடநூல், தரம் 11

1. இலங்கையின் இயற்கை இடர்கள் — ஓர் கண்ணோட்டம்

SL stable continental plate-ன் நடுவில் — significant earthquakes / volcanoes இல்லை. ஆனால் tropical monsoonal climate + island geography + steep central highlands + dense coastal population + climate change vulnerability — இவை SL-ஐ பல வகை hazards-க்கு வெளிப்படுத்துகின்றன. முக்கிய hazards:

Floods — ஆண்டுதோறும் ~75-100% பெரும்பாலான மாவட்டங்கள் ஒரு முறையாவது.
Landslides — central highlands wet zone.
Droughts — dry zone, recurring.
Cyclones — eastern coast, occasional.
Coastal erosion — SW coast significantly.
Tsunami — 2004 once-in-history but possibility persists.
Lightning — Sri Lanka world's highest lightning casualties per capita.
Sea level rise + erosion — climate change-driven.
Forest fires — dry zone occasional.
Industrial + chemical accidents — emerging.

2. வெள்ளம் (Floods) — அதிகம் occurring hazard

உரு 7.3 — SL வெள்ளம்: Kalu Ganga basin (Ratnapura), Kelani Ganga (Colombo), Nilwala (Matara) periodically inundate towns + paddy fields. NIE பாடநூல், தரம் 11

பெரும் river basins + Periodic flood spots

Kelani Ganga — Colombo, Gampaha, Kegalle, Ratnapura. Wet zone monsoon flooding.
Kalu Ganga — Ratnapura district frequent. May 2003, 2017, 2024 major events.
Nilwala Ganga — Matara low-lying.
Mahaweli — usually managed via dams; downstream Polonnaruwa/Trincomalee.
Walawe Ganga — Hambantota, Ratnapura.
Aruvi Aru (Malwathu Oya) — Anuradhapura.
Eastern Province rivers — Maduru Oya, Gal Oya.

காரணம்

Heavy monsoon rain — SW (May-Sep) flooded SW coast + central wet zone; NE (Oct-Feb) flooded eastern + dry zone.
Inter-monsoon convectional thunderstorms Mar-Apr, Oct.
Tropical depressions + cyclones from Bay of Bengal.
Deforestation — reduced infiltration, increased runoff.
Urbanization — paved surfaces, blocked drainage (Colombo flash floods).
Sand mining + river bed alteration.
Climate change — more intense rainfall events.
Reservoir dam release — coordinated but contributes downstream.

பெரும் SL flood events

1957 — historic flood, Mahaweli basin.
2003 May — Ratnapura, Galle, Kalutara, Matara; 260+ dead.
2010-11 — Eastern Province NE monsoon; 1M+ displaced.
2014 — Northern + Eastern.
2016 May Cyclone Roanu — landslides + flooding; 100+ dead.
2017 May — SW monsoon; Kalu Ganga; 200+ dead; Bulathkohupitiya landslide.
2018-19 — multiple events.
2024 May-Jun — Eastern + central; flooding + landslides.

3. நிலச்சரிவு (Landslides)

உரு 7.1 — SL landslide: tea estate slopes after heavy rain — mass movement. NIE பாடநூல், தரம் 11

வரைபடம் 7.2 — SL landslide-prone districts: Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Badulla, Ratnapura, Matale, Kegalle, Kalutara, Galle, Hambantota. NIE பாடநூல், தரம் 11

Vulnerable areas

Central highlands + foothills (wet zone). 10 முக்கிய மாவட்டங்கள்: Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Badulla, Ratnapura, Matale, Kegalle, Kalutara, Galle, Matara, Hambantota. Affected area ~20,000 km² (30% of SL land).

காரணம் + Trigger

Steep slopes — Central highlands averaging 15-30°+.
Heavy rainfall — 300+ mm in 24h commonly triggers.
Weak rock + soil (regolith) — laterite, residual.
Deforestation — tea/cardamom/vegetable cultivation removes root anchoring.
Improper construction — slope cutting, road expansion (e.g. Badulla road expansion).
Earthquakes — rare in SL but historical.
Slope failure history — recurrence common.

பெரும் SL landslides

1957 Kandy — Helauda; 12 dead.
1986 Walapane — 122 dead.
1989 Padiyapelella — 36 dead.
2003 Kelani Valley — heavy rain trigger.
2014 Meeriyabedda (Koslanda, Badulla) — 38 dead; tea estate housing destroyed.
2016 Aranayake, Kegalle — 127 dead; deadliest in SL history.
2017 Bulathkohupitiya (Kegalle) — multiple landslides + floods; 200+ dead.
2024 May Bandarawela, Hatton — wet zone events.

NBRO Role

National Building Research Organisation (NBRO) — primary landslide research + monitoring + warning organisation. Hazard zonation maps, early warning, geotechnical advice.

4. வறட்சி (Droughts)

வரைபடம் 7.7 — SL drought-prone dry zone: NCP (Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa), Hambantota, Monaragala, Mannar. NIE பாடநூல், தரம் 11

உரு 7.6 — Drought-stressed paddy + dried-up village tank in dry zone. NIE பாடநூல், தரம் 11

Vulnerable areas

Dry zone: NCP (Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Kurunegala), Hambantota, Monaragala, Mannar, Vavuniya, Mullaitivu, Trincomalee. Annual rainfall <1250 mm; main rain via NE monsoon Oct-Feb only.

காரணம்

NE monsoon failure — irregular Maha season rainfall.
El Niño years — disrupted monsoon.
SW monsoon rain shadow — central highlands block.
Climate change — increasing variability.
Forest loss — reduced moisture recycling.
Over-abstraction — irrigation + drinking water demand.
Tank network degradation — silting, encroachment.

முக்கிய SL droughts

1976-77, 1986-87, 1996-97, 2001-02, 2016-17, 2024 — recurring.
2016-17: 2M+ affected; agriculture losses Rs 30B+.
2017 Maha season failure followed by 2017 May floods — extreme rainfall variability.

பயன்பாட்டு + impact

Paddy yield loss + food insecurity.
Drinking water shortages.
Hydropower generation drop → grid stress.
Livestock + plantation impact.
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKDu) link suspected — agro-chemical + fluoride water concentrations.

5. சூறாவளி (Cyclones)

உரு 7.4 — Bay of Bengal cyclone satellite image — towards SL. NIE பாடநூல், தரம் 11

வரைபடம் 7.5 — SL cyclone tracks: Bay of Bengal storms periodically hit Eastern + Northern provinces. NIE பாடநூல், தரம் 11

SL cyclone vulnerability

Bay of Bengal cyclones occasionally hit SL — particularly Eastern + Northern coasts. Less frequent + intense than Bangladesh/E India ones (SL on outer track of most systems). Seasons: Oct-Nov + Apr-May.

முக்கிய SL cyclones

1907 — Mannar.
1922 — north.
1964 December — Eastern Province; Batticaloa devastated; 100s dead.
1978 November Cyclone — Batticaloa + Trincomalee; 700+ dead; 1M displaced; heaviest known SL cyclone impact.
1992 Cyclone — Eastern Province.
2000 Cyclone — north.
2016 May Cyclone Roanu — flooding + landslides Western + Sabaragamuwa; 100+ dead.
2018 May Cyclone Sagar — outer effects.
2024 May Cyclone Remal — outer effects, heavy rain Eastern.

6. கடற்கரை அரிப்பு + Storm Surge (Coastal Erosion)

SL 1,340 km coastline + dense population (50%+ within 25km). Concerns:

SW coast erosion — Beruwala, Bentota, Hikkaduwa, Galle — peak erosion during SW monsoon.
Sand mining — beach + offshore sand removal destabilizes.
Coral mining — coral lime cement industry past — left coast unprotected.
Harbour breakwater impacts — Colombo, Hambantota ports modify currents.
Sea level rise — climate change-driven; ~10 cm last 30 years.
Cyclone storm surge — east coast.
Coral bleaching — 2016, 2024 mass events — reefs less protective.

Coast Conservation Department (CCD) — manages 300m setback regulations + protection works (groynes, revetments). Mangrove restoration programs (Negombo, Madu Ganga).

7. சுனாமி (Tsunami) — 2004

உரு 7.9 — 2004 sunami SL coast — Eastern + Southern devastation. NIE பாடநூல், தரம் 11

Detail covered in previous unit (G11 U6). SL highlights:

Dec 26 2004 — Sumatra M9.1 ~2 hours later reached SL.
~35,000-40,000 dead; 500,000+ displaced.
Peraliya train disaster — ~1,700 dead — deadliest single train disaster in history.
Most affected: Eastern coast (Trincomalee, Batticaloa, Ampara), Southern coast (Hambantota, Matara, Galle), parts of NW (Negombo).
Yala wildlife — most animals sensed and fled inland; remarkable behaviour.
Aftermath: Disaster Management Act 2005 + DMC; IOTWS 2006; coastal building setbacks.
Reconstruction — 5-7 years; international aid + diaspora.
Memorials: Peraliya train, Hambantota statue.
Future risk — Sumatran subduction zone still locked; another tsunami possibility persists.

8. மின்னல் (Lightning)

உரு 7.8 — மின்னல் தாக்குதல்: SL world's highest lightning casualties per capita. NIE பாடநூல், தரம் 11

Surprising fact — SL has world's highest lightning casualties per capita. ~50+ deaths/year. Why?

Tropical convectional storms — high CAPE + humidity.
Inter-monsoon March-April + October peak.
Rural exposure — paddy fields during planting/harvest.
Construction labour outdoor.
Tree shelter myth — many die under trees (NOT safe).
Limited building grounding.

Department of Meteorology lightning warnings. Public education on safety. Lightning rods on tall buildings.

9. பேரிடர் மேலாண்மை (Disaster Management) — SL Framework

Disaster Management Act 2005

Post-2004 tsunami legislation — established statutory framework:

National Council for Disaster Management (NCDM) — chaired by President; PM + ministers.
Disaster Management Centre (DMC) — operational arm under MOD/PMD; coordinates response.
District + Divisional Disaster Management Committees.
National + Subnational DRM Plans.

Key Institutions

DMC — coordination + early warning + response.
NBRO — landslides.
Department of Meteorology — weather warnings.
Department of Irrigation — floods + tank operation.
Coast Conservation Department (CCD) — coastal management.
CEA — environmental + post-disaster pollution.
NDMC + DDMC + DvDMC at multiple admin levels.
Tri-Services (Army/Navy/Air Force) — emergency response.
Sri Lanka Red Cross + local NGOs.
UN OCHA + UNDP + international partners.

Sendai Framework alignment

SL is signatory to Sendai 2015-30. National DRM Plan 2018-30 aligns with Sendai priorities. Mainstreaming DRR into development planning (\"Build Back Better\" + climate adaptation).

Insurance

National Natural Disaster Insurance Scheme (NNDIS) — Sri Lanka Insurance — covers households up to Rs 2.5M; SMEs up to Rs 2M.
Operated post-2016 floods/landslides; government-funded premium for poor.

⭐ பரீட்சைக் குறிப்புகள் — மறக்காதே

SL = stable plate interior — no major quakes/volcanoes. But cyclones, floods, landslides, droughts, tsunami (2004), lightning common.
Flood rivers: Kelani, Kalu (Ratnapura frequent), Nilwala, Mahaweli, Walawe, Aruvi Aru.
Landslide districts (10): Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Badulla, Ratnapura, Matale, Kegalle, Kalutara, Galle, Matara, Hambantota.
Major landslides: 1986 Walapane (122); 2014 Meeriyabedda (38); 2016 Aranayake (127 — deadliest).
NBRO = landslide research + warning.
Drought zone: NCP + Hambantota + Monaragala + Mannar + Mullaitivu. Annual rain <1250 mm.
Major cyclones SL: 1964 Eastern; 1978 Nov (700+ dead, deadliest); 2016 Roanu.
SL on cyclone track — outer track usually; Eastern + Northern provinces most vulnerable.
2004 Tsunami: ~35-40K dead; Peraliya train ~1,700 (deadliest train ever).
SL world\'s highest lightning casualties per capita — ~50+ deaths/year.
Disaster Management Act 2005 + DMC established post-tsunami.
NCDM (President-chaired) + DMC operational.
NNDIS insurance scheme.

⚠ மாணவர்கள் செய்யும் பொதுத் தவறுகள்

SL plate-interior, NOT plate boundary — no major earthquakes/volcanoes. Tsunami can come from elsewhere.
"Cyclone" not "typhoon" — SL = Bay of Bengal cyclones (Indian Ocean naming).
Lightning = number-one preventable death — SL world-high per capita.
Landslides 10 districts (not just Kandy + Nuwara Eliya).
Tsunami affected MORE than just SL Eastern coast — entire coast + tourist areas south + west.
DMC = operational; NCDM = policy.
"Sendai Framework" = UN framework SL signed; not SL-only.
2016 Aranayake = single deadliest landslide (127 dead, not Walapane 122).
Dry zone tank network = adaptation strategy, ancient infrastructure.

✅ விரைவுச் சோதனை

முக்கியக் கருத்துக்களை உறுதிப்படுத்துங்கள். தவறான விடைகள் உங்கள் தவறுக் குறிப்பேட்டில் சேமிக்கப்படும்.

🖊 கட்டுரை வினாக்கள் (பகுதி II)

பரீட்சை வடிவில் கட்டமைப்பு வினாக்கள். முதலில் நீங்களே எழுதுங்கள்; பின்னர் மாதிரி விடையைத் திறந்து சரிபாருங்கள்.

1. இலங்கைக்கு வரும் முக்கிய இயற்கை இடர்கள் — floods, landslides, droughts, cyclones, tsunami, lightning — பகிர்வு + காரணம் + பெரும் events — விளக்குக. (10 புள்ளி)

விடைத் திட்டம் — சேர்க்க வேண்டிய புள்ளிகள்:

SL stable plate interior; no major quakes/volcanoes
Floods: Kalu+Kelani+Nilwala basins; 2003/2017/2024
Landslides: 10 districts central wet zone; 2016 Aranayake 127 dead
Droughts: dry zone NCP+Hambantota; 2016-17 widespread
Cyclones: Eastern province; 1978 deadliest 700+
Tsunami: 2004 35K+ dead Peraliya 1700
Lightning: world's highest casualties per capita 50+/yr

SL சிறு தீவு என்றாலும் — மற்றும் stable Indian plate-ன் நடுவில் இருந்தாலும் — multiple natural hazards-ஐ எதிர்நோக்குகிறது. முக்கிய hazards:

**(1) Floods (வெள்ளம்) — SL\'s most common hazard.**
- **Main flood basins:** Kelani (Colombo + Gampaha + Kegalle); Kalu (Ratnapura — most flood-frequent in SL); Nilwala (Matara); Mahaweli downstream (Polonnaruwa/Trincomalee); Walawe (Hambantota); Aruvi Aru (Anuradhapura); Eastern Province rivers (Maduru Oya, Gal Oya).
- **Causes:** Heavy monsoon rain (SW May-Sep flooded SW wet zone; NE Oct-Feb flooded dry/eastern); inter-monsoon convectional storms (Mar-Apr, Oct); tropical depressions from Bay of Bengal; deforestation; urbanization-driven flash floods (Colombo); sand mining + climate change-driven intense rainfall.
- **Major events:** 1957 historic Mahaweli flood; 2003 May (260+ dead, Ratnapura/Galle/Kalutara); 2010-11 Eastern (1M+ displaced); 2014 Northern + Eastern; 2016 May Cyclone Roanu (100+ dead); 2017 May SW monsoon (200+ dead, Bulathkohupitiya landslide); 2024 May-Jun multi-region.

**(2) Landslides (நிலச்சரிவு) — Central highlands focus.**
- **Vulnerable: 10 districts** — Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Badulla, Ratnapura, Matale, Kegalle, Kalutara, Galle, Matara, Hambantota. Affected area ~20,000 km² (30% land).
- **Causes:** Steep slopes (15-30°+); heavy rain (300+ mm/24h triggers); weak regolith (laterite); deforestation (tea/cardamom/vegetable expansion); slope cutting (road construction); historical recurrence.
- **Major events:** 1957 Helauda (12 dead); **1986 Walapane (122)** — major early; 1989 Padiyapelella (36); 2003 Kelani valley; **2014 Meeriyabedda (Koslanda, Badulla) — 38 dead, tea estate housing destroyed**; **2016 Aranayake (Kegalle) — 127 dead** (deadliest single SL landslide); **2017 Bulathkohupitiya (Kegalle) — multi-landslides + floods 200+ dead**.
- **NBRO** (National Building Research Organisation) is primary research + warning agency.

**(3) Droughts (வறட்சி) — Dry zone recurring issue.**
- **Vulnerable:** Dry zone — NCP (Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Kurunegala), Hambantota, Monaragala, Mannar, Vavuniya, Mullaitivu, Trincomalee. Annual rainfall <1250 mm; depend on NE monsoon Oct-Feb.
- **Causes:** NE monsoon failure; El Niño years; SW monsoon rain shadow; climate change variability; forest loss; over-abstraction; tank network degradation.
- **Recurring years:** 1976-77, 1986-87, 1996-97, 2001-02, **2016-17 (2M+ affected, Rs 30B losses)**, 2024.
- **Impact:** paddy yield loss; drinking water shortage; hydropower drop; livestock losses; CKDu suspected agro-chemical/fluoride water link.

**(4) Cyclones (சூறாவளி) — Eastern + Northern provinces.**
- SL on outer Bay of Bengal cyclone track. Seasons: Oct-Nov + Apr-May.
- **Major events:** 1907 Mannar; 1922 north; **1964 Dec — Batticaloa devastated**; **1978 Nov — Batticaloa/Trincomalee 700+ dead, 1M displaced (deadliest SL cyclone)**; 1992 Eastern; 2000 north; 2016 May Cyclone Roanu (flooding + landslides 100+ dead); 2018 Sagar outer; 2024 Remal outer.

**(5) Tsunami (சுனாமி) — 2004 once-in-history.**
- Dec 26 2004 M9.1 Sumatra epicenter → reached SL ~2 hours later. **~35,000-40,000 dead, 500,000+ displaced**. Eastern + Southern coasts worst hit; SW also affected (Galle, Hikkaduwa). **Peraliya train (Telwatta near Hikkaduwa) — ~1,700 dead — deadliest single train disaster in history**. Yala wildlife sensed and fled inland.
- Future risk: Sumatran subduction zone still locked; another event possible.

**(6) Lightning (மின்னல்) — SL world\'s highest casualties per capita.**
- ~50+ deaths/year — highest globally per capita.
- **Causes:** tropical convective thunderstorms (high CAPE + humidity); inter-monsoon peak (Mar-Apr, Oct); rural exposure (paddy fields); tree-shelter myth (many die under trees); limited grounding in rural structures.

**(7) Other:** Coastal erosion (SW coast Beruwala-Galle); coral bleaching (2016, 2024 mass events); occasional forest fires (dry zone); industrial accidents.

SL is multi-hazard prone — preparedness + mitigation crucial. DMC + NBRO + Met Dept + CCD + tri-services coordinate. Sendai 2015-30 framework + National DRM Plan 2018-30 guide strategy.

2. \"2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami\" — SL impact, response, reform — விரிவாக விளக்குக. (10 புள்ளி)

விடைத் திட்டம் — சேர்க்க வேண்டிய புள்ளிகள்:

Dec 26 2004 M9.1 Sumatra → SL ~2 hrs
35K dead; 500K+ displaced
Eastern + Southern + SW coasts worst
Peraliya train ~1,700 dead — deadliest train disaster
Yala animals fled
Aftermath: DMA 2005, DMC, NBRO expanded
IOTWS 2006 established
Coastal setbacks 100-300m
International aid + reconstruction 5-7 years
Memorials Peraliya + Hambantota

2004 டிசம்பர் 26 — Boxing Day. காலை 9:25 AM (SL time) — Sumatra-வின் NW கடற்தடியில் ஏற்பட்ட M9.1 megaquake-ஆல் கடல் நீர் massive volume displaced. ~2 hours later, அலைகள் SL கடற்கரையை அடைந்தன — அந்த ஒரு நாள் SL வரலாற்றில் deadliest natural disaster ஆனது.

**SL Impact Detail:**

**Death toll:** ~35,000-40,000 dead (precise count never possible — many fishing community + tourists). **500,000+ displaced**. **800,000+ requiring relief.**

**Geographic spread:**
- **Eastern Province** (Trincomalee, Batticaloa, Ampara) — worst hit. ~1/2 of deaths. Fishing villages of muslim + Tamil communities devastated.
- **Southern Province** (Hambantota, Matara, Galle) — second worst. Tourist beaches in Christmas-New Year peak season. Tangalle, Mirissa, Weligama, Unawatuna.
- **SW coast** (Beruwala, Bentota, Hikkaduwa) — tourist resorts ravaged.
- **NW coast** (Negombo, Marawila) — moderate damage.
- **Northern** (Mullaitivu, Jaffna) — affected but LTTE-controlled area; limited information; significant fisher community losses.

**Peraliya Train Disaster (Queen of the Sea, "Samudradevi"):**
The coastal Galle Road train, packed with ~1,500-2,000 passengers, was overrun by the second wave near Telwatta (close to Hikkaduwa). Two waves bashed the train. **~1,700 dead** — single deadliest train disaster in world history. Memorial erected at Peraliya.

**Yala National Park Animals — Remarkable Story:**
Reports of elephants, monkeys, deer, leopards moving inland or to higher ground BEFORE the wave hit. Few wildlife casualties despite human deaths at Yala camps. Behavioural science theory: animals perceive infrasonic vibrations + sense atmospheric pressure changes humans cannot.

**Why So Devastating?**
1. **No Indian Ocean tsunami warning system** existed.
2. **No public awareness** — "tsunami" word unfamiliar even in Tamil/Sinhala media.
3. **2-hour warning window unused** — even though Indonesia knew quake within minutes.
4. **Coastal density** — fishing villages + tourism + dense.
5. **First wave smaller in some places** — people went to see exposed seabed; second wave killed.
6. **Boxing Day weekend** — relaxed beachgoers; tourists abundant.
7. **No coastal building setbacks** — homes built at high-tide line.
8. **Civil war** — northeast had no warning infrastructure.
9. **Geographic exposure** — east coast directly facing Sumatra.

**Immediate Response (Dec 26 - Jan 2005):**
- Tri-Services (Army/Navy/Air Force) mobilized for rescue + relief.
- Sri Lanka Red Cross + international NGOs (MSF, UNHCR, IFRC, ICRC).
- Sri Lanka government emergency declaration.
- International aid: **largest humanitarian operation in history at the time**. Pledged ~$13 billion globally; SL received ~$2-3 billion.
- USA, India, EU, Japan, China, Middle East — bilateral aid.
- LTTE-government truce brief — collaboration in northeast briefly possible.
- Mass identification + burial challenge; 7,500+ buried in mass graves.
- IDP welfare centres established in schools + temples + churches.

**Medium-term Recovery (2005-08):**
- Housing reconstruction — 100,000+ houses rebuilt by various agencies.
- Tourism infrastructure rebuilt (faster than expected).
- Fishing fleet replaced (with international aid).
- Schools, hospitals, police stations rebuilt.
- Roads, railways, power infrastructure restored.
- **5-7 year recovery timeline.**

**Legal + Institutional Reform:**

1. **Sri Lanka Disaster Management Act No. 13 of 2005** — established statutory framework.
2. **National Council for Disaster Management (NCDM)** — chaired by President; PM + ministers + DGs.
3. **Disaster Management Centre (DMC)** — operational arm under PMD/MOD; coordinates response.
4. **NBRO expansion** — landslide research + zonation maps + early warning.
5. **District + Divisional Disaster Management Committees** — decentralized.
6. **National Disaster Risk Management Policy.**

**International System Reform — Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (IOTWS):**
- Established 2005-06 under **UNESCO IOC** (Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission).
- **Regional Tsunami Service Providers:** Australia, India, Indonesia (Tsunami Warning Centres).
- **DART buoys** (Deep-ocean Assessment & Reporting of Tsunamis) deployed across Indian Ocean.
- **Coastal sirens** + **SMS alerts** + **media broadcast** protocols.
- **Tsunami evacuation routes signposted** along SL coast.
- **Public education + drills** annually.

**Coastal Management Reform:**
- **Coast Conservation Department (CCD)** strengthened.
- **100-300m coastal setback** for new construction (depending on geomorphology).
- **"Build Back Better"** principle — Hyogo Framework 2005 (later Sendai 2015) adopted.
- **Mangrove + coral restoration** — natural barriers.

**Memorials + Cultural Memory:**
- **Peraliya** — railway carriage retained, memorial statue. Tsunami Honganji Memorial.
- **Hambantota** — large public sculpture.
- **2004 Tsunami Museum** — Hikkaduwa.
- **Annual remembrance day Dec 26.**
- **"Wave of Destruction, Wave of Hope"** documentaries.

**Critical Reflections:**
- **Aid effectiveness** — some money lost to corruption + duplication.
- **Coastal land grabs** — some displaced fishing communities replaced by tourism developments. "Coastal poor displaced by reconstruction."
- **Climate change context** — sea level rise + cyclone intensification make coastal risk persistent.
- **Equity:** northeast Tamils + Muslim communities historically marginalized; some assistance discriminatory.
- **Resilience built but vigilance must persist** — Sumatran zone still locked.

2004 changed SL forever — institutional, infrastructural, psychological. It also demonstrated international solidarity at unprecedented scale + accelerated global disaster risk reduction architecture.

3. \"SL Disaster Management Framework\" — Act, institutions, Sendai alignment — விளக்குக. (8 புள்ளி)

விடைத் திட்டம் — சேர்க்க வேண்டிய புள்ளிகள்:

DM Act 2005 post-tsunami
NCDM (President-chaired)
DMC operational
NBRO landslides, Met Dept weather, CCD coastal
District + Divisional committees
Sendai 2015-30 alignment
National DRM Plan 2018-30
NNDIS insurance
Build Back Better principle

2004 tsunami-க்கு பின்னர் SL DRM framework fundamentally restructured. முக்கிய elements:

**Legal Foundation:**
- **Sri Lanka Disaster Management Act No. 13 of 2005** — passed January 2005, just weeks after tsunami. Established statutory disaster management architecture for first time.
- **National Disaster Management Policy** subsequent.
- **Disaster Management Centre Regulations**.

**Institutional Hierarchy:**

**(1) National Council for Disaster Management (NCDM):**
- **Highest policy-making body.**
- Chaired by **President of Sri Lanka**.
- Members: Prime Minister, key Cabinet ministers (Defence, Environment, Health, Public Administration, Provincial Councils), Chief Ministers, opposition leaders.
- Sets policy + strategic direction.
- Activated during major events.

**(2) Disaster Management Centre (DMC):**
- **Operational arm under Ministry of Defence/PMD.**
- Director-General + technical/administrative staff.
- **Functions:** Early warning + alerts; coordination across agencies; emergency response; preparedness planning; risk assessment; relief management; recovery oversight; training + drills; public awareness.
- 24/7 Emergency Operations Centre.
- Maintains national disaster database + hazard maps.

**(3) Specialized Technical Agencies:**
- **NBRO** (National Building Research Organisation) — landslides research, hazard zonation, early warning, geotechnical advice. Pioneer SL agency for slopes.
- **Department of Meteorology** — weather forecasts, cyclone warnings, drought monitoring, lightning information.
- **Department of Irrigation** — flood management, tank operation.
- **Coast Conservation Department (CCD)** — coastal protection, setbacks, beach management.
- **Central Environmental Authority (CEA)** — environmental + post-disaster pollution.
- **NARA** — coastal + marine hazards.
- **Geological Survey & Mines Bureau (GSMB)** — seismology, mineral hazards.

**(4) Subnational Structure:**
- **District Disaster Management Committee (DDMC)** — each of 25 districts. Chaired by District Secretary.
- **Divisional Disaster Management Committee (DvDMC)** — each Divisional Secretariat.
- **GN Disaster Management** — Grama Niladhari grassroots level.
- **Provincial Disaster Management Coordinators**.

**(5) Emergency Response Forces:**
- **Sri Lanka Army** — main rescue + relief; engineering battalions.
- **Sri Lanka Navy** — coastal search + rescue, evacuation.
- **Sri Lanka Air Force** — air rescue, supply drops.
- **Sri Lanka Police** — Special Task Force; traffic + crowd management.
- **Tri-Services Mobilisation** in major disasters.

**(6) Civil Society + International:**
- **Sri Lanka Red Cross Society** — Auxiliary to government.
- **IFRC + ICRC** — partnership.
- **NGOs:** Save the Children, Oxfam, World Vision, MSF, ADRA, etc.
- **UN agencies:** UNDP, UNICEF, WFP, FAO, UNHCR, WHO, OCHA.
- **IOM** (International Org. for Migration).
- **Bilateral partners:** Japan (JICA), USAID, AusAID, EU.

**Sendai Framework Alignment (2015-2030):**
SL is signatory. **Four priorities aligned in national framework:**
1. **Understanding disaster risk** — hazard mapping (NBRO + DMC + others), vulnerability assessment, climate projections.
2. **Strengthening disaster risk governance** — DMC strengthening, sub-national capacity, multi-stakeholder.
3. **Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience** — infrastructure (cyclone shelters, flood walls, slope stabilization), ecosystem-based approaches (mangroves, watersheds), social protection.
4. **Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response** — early warning systems, evacuation plans, stockpiles, drills.

**Seven global targets:** SL contributing to all (death + affected populations reduction, economic loss reduction, infrastructure damage, DRM strategies, international cooperation, EWS coverage).

**National DRM Plan 2018-2030:**
- Aligned with Sendai + SDGs + Paris Agreement.
- Multi-hazard, multi-sectoral approach.
- Climate change adaptation mainstreamed.
- Build Back Better (BBB) principle.
- Community-based DRR (CBDRR).
- Gender + inclusion sensitive.
- ICT-enabled (apps, social media alerts).

**Early Warning Systems:**
- **Tsunami:** IOTWS + DART + sirens + SMS.
- **Cyclone:** Met Dept + IMD India coordination + media.
- **Flood:** Irrigation Dept + Met + DMC.
- **Landslide:** NBRO + DMC + community wardens.
- **Drought:** Met + Agriculture monitoring.
- **Lightning:** Met Dept alerts.

**Insurance — NNDIS (National Natural Disaster Insurance Scheme):**
- Launched **2016** after floods/landslides exposed lack of household insurance.
- **Sri Lanka Insurance Corporation** administers.
- Government-funded premium for poor households.
- **Household coverage up to Rs 2.5 million; SMEs up to Rs 2 million.**
- Triggered by floods, landslides, cyclones, droughts, lightning, fires.
- Aim: rapid post-disaster recovery without long government bureaucracy.

**Challenges:**
1. **Underinvestment** — DRM budget often considered "luxury" pre-disaster.
2. **Coordination gaps** — multiple agencies, jurisdictional friction.
3. **Climate change** — accelerating hazard frequency + intensity.
4. **Information dissemination** — last-mile communication to rural communities.
5. **Equity** — northeast historically less-served.
6. **Urban flooding** — Colombo Megapolis vulnerability.
7. **Capacity building** — local-level DRM volunteers + officials need continuous training.
8. **2022 economic crisis** — DRM resources stretched.

**Future Direction:**
- AI + GIS for hazard prediction.
- Community-based DRR scaling.
- Climate-resilient infrastructure investment.
- Insurance penetration deeper rural.
- Mainstreaming DRR in all development planning.
- Regional cooperation (SAARC, BIMSTEC, IORA).

🔥 மீட்டல் மையம்

பரீட்சைக்கு முன் இறுதி ஒரு நிமிடம் — மறக்கக்கூடாதவை மட்டும்.

SL = stable plate interior: no major earthquakes/volcanoes. Subject to floods, landslides, droughts, cyclones, tsunami (2004), lightning, coastal erosion.
Floods: Kelani, Kalu (Ratnapura most frequent), Nilwala, Mahaweli, Walawe. Causes: monsoons + deforestation + urban.
Landslides: 10 districts (Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Badulla, Ratnapura, Matale, Kegalle, Kalutara, Galle, Matara, Hambantota). ~30% of land vulnerable.
Deadliest landslide: 2016 Aranayake (Kegalle) — 127 dead. Others: 1986 Walapane 122; 2014 Meeriyabedda 38.
NBRO = landslide research + warning.
Droughts: Dry zone NCP + Hambantota + Monaragala. 2016-17 major (2M+ affected).
Cyclones: Eastern + Northern. 1978 deadliest 700+ dead, 1M displaced. 1964, 2016 Roanu, 2024 Remal.
Tsunami 2004: M9.1 Sumatra → SL ~35K+ dead. Peraliya train ~1,700 dead — deadliest train disaster.
Lightning: SL world's highest casualties per capita — ~50+ deaths/yr.
DM Act 2005 post-tsunami. NCDM (President-chaired). DMC operational.
Sendai Framework 2015-30 + National DRM Plan 2018-30.
NNDIS = National Natural Disaster Insurance Scheme (SLIC).
Cycle: Mitigation → Preparedness → Response → Recovery.

அலகின் முதுகெலும்பு — கருத்துக்களும் தொடர்புகளும்.

Major flood events: 1957 Mahaweli; 2003 May (260+ dead — Ratnapura/Galle/Kalutara); 2010-11 Eastern (1M+ displaced); 2014 N+E; 2016 May Roanu (100+); 2017 May (200+ Bulathkohupitiya); 2024 multi-region.
Landslide chronology: 1957 Helauda (12); 1986 Walapane (122); 1989 Padiyapelella (36); 2003 Kelani valley; 2014 Meeriyabedda (38 — Indian-origin estate housing); 2016 Aranayake (127 deadliest); 2017 Bulathkohupitiya (200+ multi-event); 2024 Bandarawela/Hatton.
Landslide causes: steep slopes 15-30°+, heavy rain 300+mm/24h trigger, weak regolith (laterite), deforestation (tea/vegetable), slope cutting (roads), historical recurrence.
Drought details: Dry zone <1250 mm; depends on NE monsoon Oct-Feb. Recurring years: 1976-77, 1986-87, 1996-97, 2001-02, 2016-17 (2M affected, Rs 30B losses), 2024.
Drought impacts: Paddy yield loss; food insecurity; drinking water; hydropower drop; CKDu link (agro-chemical + fluoride water hypothesis in NCP/Uva).
Cyclone history: 1907 Mannar; 1922 north; 1964 Dec Batticaloa; 1978 Nov Batticaloa+Trincomalee 700+ dead 1M displaced (deadliest); 1992 Eastern; 2000 north; 2016 Roanu (Sabaragamuwa+Western); 2018 Sagar; 2024 Remal outer.
Tsunami 2004 SL detail: Worst hit Eastern Province (Trincomalee/Batticaloa/Ampara), Southern (Hambantota/Matara/Galle), SW (Beruwala/Hikkaduwa). Peraliya \"Queen of Sea\" train ~1,700 dead Telwatta. Yala wildlife mostly survived (fled inland). 800K displaced into camps.
2004 aftermath: DMA 2005 + DMC; NBRO expanded; IOTWS 2006; CCD coastal setbacks 100-300m; \"Build Back Better\"; mangrove restoration; ~$2-3B aid; 5-7yr recovery.
Coastal erosion: SW coast (Beruwala-Galle) worst — SW monsoon waves + sand mining + coral mining + harbour breakwaters. CCD setbacks + groynes + revetments. Mangrove restoration.
Lightning detail: Tropical convective storms + high CAPE + humidity + inter-monsoon Mar-Apr+Oct peak + rural paddy field exposure + tree-shelter myth. Met Dept warnings; public education.
DMC + institutions: NCDM (President-chaired policy); DMC operational coordination under MOD; NBRO landslides; Met Dept weather; Irrigation Dept floods; CCD coastal; CEA env; NARA marine; GSMB seismic; Tri-Services emergency; SL Red Cross + NGOs + UN.
Sub-national: 25 District Disaster Management Committees + Divisional + GN level grassroots.
Sendai 4 priorities applied to SL: (1) Understanding risk — NBRO maps + climate projections. (2) Strengthening governance — DMC + sub-national. (3) Investing in resilience — infrastructure + ecosystems + social protection. (4) Enhancing preparedness — EWS + evacuation + drills.
NNDIS detail: Launched 2016 post-flood/landslide gaps. SLIC administers. Household Rs 2.5M + SME Rs 2M coverage. Government premium for poor. Triggered by floods/landslides/cyclones/droughts/lightning/fires.

பரீட்சைக்கு முந்தின இரவு முழு அலகையும் ஓட்டிப் பார்.

Quick numbers: SL hazards — Aranayake 2016 (127 deadliest landslide); 1978 cyclone (700+ dead); 2004 tsunami (35K dead); Peraliya train (1700); lightning (50+/yr — world's highest per capita).
Year-event pairs: 1964 Dec Batticaloa cyclone; 1978 Nov cyclone deadliest; 1986 Walapane landslide 122; 2003 May floods 260+; 2004 Dec 26 tsunami; 2014 Meeriyabedda landslide; 2016 Aranayake + Roanu; 2017 Bulathkohupitiya; 2024 Remal + multi.
10 landslide districts memorize: Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Badulla, Ratnapura, Matale, Kegalle, Kalutara, Galle, Matara, Hambantota.
எளிதில் தவறும்: (1) SL plate interior — no quakes/volcanoes; tsunami came from elsewhere. (2) "Cyclone" not "typhoon" (Indian Ocean naming). (3) DMC=operational; NCDM=policy. (4) NBRO=landslide. (5) Aranayake 2016 (not Walapane 1986) deadliest single landslide. (6) Lightning world's highest casualties per capita — true SL fact.
கட்டுரைக்குத் தயார்: (1) Multiple hazards overview. (2) 2004 tsunami SL impact + response + reform. (3) DM framework: Act 2005 + NCDM + DMC + Sendai alignment.
Future challenges: Climate change intensifies (more cyclones, floods, droughts, sea level). Coastal vulnerability rising. Aging infrastructure. DRM budget constraints post-2022 crisis. Equity in north-east.
Key institutions to remember: DMC (operational coordination), NBRO (landslides), Met Dept (weather), Irrigation Dept (floods), CCD (coastal), CEA (pollution), NARA (marine), GSMB (seismic). Tri-Services emergency response.
Build Back Better principle = global Hyogo 2005 → Sendai 2015; SL adopted post-tsunami.

📝 மேலும் பயிற்சி