1️⃣1️⃣ தரம் 11 · அலகு 2
இலங்கையின் இயற்கை வளங்கள்
★★★★★
நீர்காடுகனியங்கள்
இலங்கை — பரப்பளவில் சிறிய தீவு. ஆனால் நீர், காடு, மண், கனியம், கடல், சக்தி எனப் பார்த்தால் வளமின் கருவூலம். ஏனெனில் — பருவக் காற்று கொண்டுவரும் மழை, பழம் சிங்க அரசர்கள் கட்டிய 4000+ தடாகங்கள், மலையோர பெருங்காடுகள், பழம் geological graphite + gems, கடற்கரை mineral sands, கடலின் 517,000 km² EEZ. இவ்வலகில் இலங்கையின் (1) நீர் வளம், (2) காடு, (3) மண், (4) கனியங்கள் (graphite, gems, mineral sands), (5) கடல் + maritime வளம், (6) சக்தி — இவற்றை அறிவோம். கடந்த அலகில் உலக வளம் பார்த்தோம் — இப்போது அவற்றை இலங்கைக்கு பொருத்துவோம்.
1. இலங்கை வளம் — ஏன் சிறப்பானது?
21 மில்லியன் மக்கள் வாழும் இலங்கை (65,610 km² நிலம்) வளமின் அடர்த்தியில் — ஒரு unit area-இல் எவ்வளவு வளம் — மிக பெரிய ஆசிய நாடுகளுக்கு ஈடாக நிற்கக்கூடியது. காரணம்:
- பருவக் காற்று இருகாலம் (SW + NE monsoons) — ஆண்டு முழுவதும் மழை.
- மலை அமைப்பு — மத்திய மலையோரத்தில் மழை அதிக; தாழ்நில + வரண்ட வலயம் வேறுபடும்.
- EEZ பெரிய — நாட்டின் நிலத்தை விட 7 மடங்கு கடல் பகுதி.
- பழம் geological structure — graphite, gems formation.
- கடற்கரை வாகனம் — mineral sands beaches.
2. நீர் வளம் — இலங்கையின் உயிர்த் தண்ணீர்
மழை = இலங்கையின் primary water source. ஆண்டு மழை சராசரி ~1860 mm — global average-ஐ விட பல மடங்கு. ஆனால் இது சம பகிர்வு அல்ல. மலையோரத்தில் (Nuwara Eliya, Watawala) 5000+ mm; வரண்ட வலயத்தில் (Anuradhapura, Hambantota) <1250 mm. மழை இரு பருவக் காற்று வழியே:
- SW Monsoon (Yala) — மே-செப்.: தென்மேற்கு கடற்கரை + மலையோரம் mainly.
- NE Monsoon (Maha) — அக்.-பிப்.: வடகிழக்கு + வரண்ட வலயம்.
- Inter-monsoon (மார்.-ஏப், அக்.) — convectional rain.
ஆறுகள் (Rivers)
இலங்கையில் 103 ஆறுகள் — மத்திய மலைப்பகுதியிலிருந்து கடல் நோக்கி radial pattern-இல். முக்கியம்: Mahaweli (335 km — மிக நீளம்), Kelani, Walawe, Kalu, Aruvi Aru (Malwathu Oya), Yan Oya, Mahaweli Ganga, Deduru Oya, Maha Oya. ஆறுகள் = irrigation, hydropower, drinking water, transport.
பழம் தடாக நாகரிகம் (Ancient Tank Civilization)
3000+ ஆண்டு வரலாறு கொண்ட இலங்கைய நீர்ப்பாசன மரபு — Anuradhapura/Polonnaruwa பழம் அரசர்கள் (Parakramabahu, Mahasen, Vasabha) கட்டிய 4000+ வெவ்கள். முக்கியம்: Parakrama Samudra (Polonnaruwa — 2500 ha; \"நிறமா எத்திக் கம்பத்தான்\"), Kala Wewa (Anuradhapura — Dhatusena), Senanayake Samudra (Gal Oya — modern), Nuwara Wewa, Tissa Wewa. இவை வரண்ட வலயத்தின் நெல் களஞ்சியத்திற்கு அடிப்படை.
நிலத்தடி நீர் (Groundwater)
இலங்கையில் shallow aquifers (Jaffna Peninsula limestone, North Western coast Kalpitiya), deep aquifers பல பகுதிகளில். அதிக extraction (Jaffna agriculture) = saltwater intrusion பிரச்சினை.
⭐ பரீட்சைக் குறிப்பு
103 ஆறுகள் · Mahaweli 335 km longest · 4000+ tanks · Parakrama Samudra largest ancient tank
(2500 ha) · SW + NE monsoons.
3. காடுகள் (Forests) — பல்லுயிர் கருவூலம்
இலங்கையின் நிலப் பகுதியில் சுமார் 29% (1.9 மில்லியன் ha) காடு — ஆசிய சராசரியை விட (~20%) அதிகம். இலங்கை — biodiversity hotspot — பல்லுயிர் அடர்த்தியில் உலகின் முக்கிய புள்ளி.
காட்டு வகைகள் (Forest Types)
- Tropical Wet Evergreen (மலையோர பெருங்காடு) — Sinharaja, Kanneliya, Knuckles. 2500+ mm மழை; ஆண்டு முழுவதும் இலை.
- Tropical Sub-montane — 900-1500m; Hakgala, Horton Plains border.
- Montane Cloud Forest — 1500m+; Horton Plains, Pidurutalagala. குளிர், பனி moss-covered.
- Tropical Moist Mixed Evergreen — intermediate zone.
- Tropical Dry Mixed Evergreen (வரண்ட காடு) — Wilpattu, Yala. <1250 mm; deciduous tendency.
- Mangroves (கண்டல்) — Negombo, Madu Ganga, Puttalam, Trincomalee — coastal salt-tolerant.
- Savannah + grassland — மலை patanas (Horton Plains), பழம் chena lands.
பாதுகாப்பு பகுதிகள்
- National Parks (NP): Yala (largest by visitors — leopard density highest world!), Wilpattu (largest area ~131,693 ha), Wasgomuwa, Horton Plains, Bundala, Gal Oya, Udawalawe (elephants), Kumana, Minneriya (\"Gathering\" elephant phenomenon).
- Strict Nature Reserves: Hakgala, Yala Strict Nature Reserve.
- Forest Reserves: Sinharaja (UNESCO World Heritage), Knuckles (UNESCO), Kanneliya.
- Sanctuaries: bird sanctuaries (Kumana, Bundala).
- Biosphere Reserves: Sinharaja, Bundala, Hurulu, Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya.
- UNESCO World Heritage (Natural): Sinharaja Forest Reserve + Central Highlands (Horton Plains + Knuckles + Peak Wilderness).
காடழிப்பு (Deforestation)
ஆரம்பத்தில் (1881) ~84% காடு; 1950 ~44%; தற்போது ~29%. காரணம் — chena cultivation, plantation expansion (tea/coffee/rubber 19th century, oil palm 21st century), encroachment, hydropower reservoirs, roads, urban. பாதுகாப்பு — Mahaweli Environmental Action Plan, National Conservation Strategy, FAO + IUCN partnerships.
4. மண் வளம் (Soil Resources)
இலங்கையின் முக்கிய மண் வகைகள்:
- Reddish Brown Earth (RBE) — Dry zone, Anuradhapura/Polonnaruwa/Kurunegala. நெல், mixed crops. சிறந்த drainage.
- Red Yellow Podzolic (RYP) — Wet zone hills, Kandy/Ratnapura/Galle. Tea, rubber, coconut. Iron-leached.
- Low Humic Gley — Low-lying wet areas, valley bottoms. Paddy.
- Alluvial — River floodplains (Mahaweli, Kelani, Walawe). High fertility, paddy.
- Reddish Brown Latosolic — Mid country, Wet/Intermediate zone.
- Regosols + Solonchak — Coastal dunes; sandy + saline. Casuarina + coconut.
- Lithosols — Mountain slopes; shallow, rocky.
- Bog + Half-bog — Swamps; organic-rich.
இலங்கைய Soil Survey Department (Peradeniya) classified — 14 major soil groups.
5. கனியங்கள் (Mineral Resources)
(அ) Graphite (கிராப்பைட்) — உலகின் சிறந்த தர
இலங்கையின் graphite — vein graphite, 95-98% pure carbon — உலகின் சிறந்த தர. மற்ற நாடுகளில் amorphous / flake graphite ~85-90% pure. முக்கிய சுரங்கங்கள்:
- Bogala (Aruggammana, Kegalle) — biggest, deepest (560m).
- Kahatagaha-Kolongaha (Dodangaslanda) — state mine.
- Ragedara.
உலக graphite உற்பத்தியில் இலங்கை சிறு பகுதி (~1%) ஆனால் pure vein graphite-இல் இலங்கை monopoly. பயன்: lithium-ion battery anodes, pencils, lubricants, crucibles, electrodes, brake linings.
(ஆ) Gem Stones (இரத்தினங்கள்)
இலங்கை = \"Ratna Deepa\" (gem island). Ratnapura (\"City of Gems\") = முதன்மை mining hub. முக்கிய இரத்தினங்கள்:
- Blue Sapphire (இலங்கை world-famous; \"Ceylon Sapphire\"; உதாரணம் — Princess Diana ring).
- Star Sapphire + Star Ruby.
- Cat's Eye (Chrysoberyl) — Sri Lanka world's #1.
- Alexandrite — color-change.
- Topaz, Garnet, Tourmaline, Spinel, Zircon, Moonstone.
முக்கிய gem fields: Ratnapura, Elahera, Okkampitiya, Pelmadulla. National Gem & Jewellery Authority (NGJA) regulates. Annual gem exports ~$150-300 million.
(இ) Mineral Sands (கடற்கரை மணல் கனியம்)
Pulmoddai (Trincomalee district NE coast) = முக்கிய mineral sand deposit. கடற்கரை மணலில் கிடைக்கும் heavy minerals:
- Ilmenite (FeTiO₃) — titanium dioxide (paint pigment).
- Rutile (TiO₂) — high-grade titanium; aircraft, surgical implants.
- Zircon (ZrSiO₄) — ceramics, refractories, nuclear.
- Monazite — rare earth elements + thorium (potential nuclear fuel).
- Garnet, Sillimanite.
Lanka Mineral Sands Ltd (LMSL) operates Pulmoddai. Annual production ~70,000 tons; export to China, Japan, USA for titanium industry.
(ஈ) பிற கனியங்கள் (Other Minerals)
- Limestone (சுண்ணாம்புக் கல்) — Puttalam (Aruwakkalu — Holcim/INSEE), Jaffna Peninsula (KKS), Eppawala. Cement primary raw.
- Dolomite — Matale, Digana. Fertilizer, glass.
- Quartz + Feldspar — Owala, Polgolla. Ceramics, glass.
- Clay (kaolin) — Boralesgamuwa, Dedigama. Ceramics (Noritake, Dankotuwa).
- Mica — Matale. Electrical insulators.
- Apatite (Eppawala phosphate) — fertilizer (rock phosphate).
- Salt — Hambantota, Puttalam (sea salt evaporation pans).
- Granite — Tantirimale, Habarana. Construction, export.
6. கடல் + Maritime வளம்
EEZ ~517,000 km² (நாட்டு நிலம் 65,610-ஐ விட ~7 மடங்கு). Fishing (கடற்கரை + ஆழ்கடல் + உள்நீர்). Tuna ஏற்றுமதி. Coastal tourism + ports (Colombo, Hambantota, Trincomalee). Offshore oil & gas exploration (Mannar Basin) — promising but undeveloped. Sand mining + coral aggregates (regulated).
7. சக்தி வளம் (Energy Resources)
(அ) Hydro (நீர்மின்சாரம்)
இலங்கையின் oldest + cleanest energy. Mahaweli Complex (Victoria 210 MW, Kotmale 201 MW, Randenigala 126 MW, Rantembe 51 MW, Ulhitiya-Rathkinda). Laxapana Complex (New Laxapana 100 MW, Wimalasurendra 50 MW, Old Laxapana 50 MW). Samanalawewa 120 MW. Total installed hydro ~1700 MW; ~30% national grid.
(ஆ) Thermal (Coal + Oil)
Norochcholai Coal Power Plant (Lakvijaya, Puttalam) — 900 MW, Chinese-built (CMEC), 2011 commissioned. ~35% national electricity. Sapugaskanda Refinery (oil → diesel power stations). Kelanitissa CCGT (combined-cycle gas turbine). 100% coal + oil imported (Russia, Saudi, UAE).
(இ) Renewables (Wind, Solar, Biomass)
Wind: Mannar Wind Farm (100 MW, expandable to 250+ MW). Hambantota, Kalpitiya pilot. Total
~250 MW.
Solar: rooftop PV (\"Soorya Bala Sangramaya\" 2016 scheme); Hambantota Welikanda solar; total
~700 MW grid + small.
Biomass: rice husk, sugarcane bagasse, dendro plantations.
Geothermal: not significant.
Target: 70% renewable electricity by 2030.
8. வளப் பாதுகாப்பு + சவால்கள்
- நீர் மாசு — Industrial effluent (Kelani river), agro-chemicals (CKDu — dry zone kidney disease).
- காடழிப்பு — chena, agriculture encroachment.
- மண் அரிப்பு — tea slopes (Central Highlands).
- Sand mining — Ma Oya, Deduru Oya — destructive.
- Coral / sea — reef bleaching, over-fishing.
- Energy import dependency — coal + oil ~50%+ import bill.
பாதுகாப்பு நிறுவனங்கள்
- Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) — National Parks.
- Forest Department — Forest Reserves.
- Central Environmental Authority (CEA) — pollution control + EIA.
- Mahaweli Authority — irrigation + watershed.
- NARA — aquatic + coastal research.
- Geological Survey & Mines Bureau (GSMB) — mineral exploration + regulation.
- Sustainable Energy Authority (SEA) — renewable energy promotion.
⭐ பரீட்சைக் குறிப்புகள் — மறக்காதே
- நிலம் 65,610 km²; EEZ 517,000 km² (7×). 103 ஆறுகள் · Mahaweli 335 km longest.
- 4000+ ancient tanks. Parakrama Samudra (Polonnaruwa) = largest (2500 ha).
- காடு 29% (down from 84% in 1881). UNESCO Sinharaja + Central Highlands.
- Major National Parks: Yala (visitors), Wilpattu (area), Wasgomuwa, Horton Plains, Bundala, Udawalawe (elephants), Minneriya (gathering).
- Soil: RBE (dry zone), RYP (wet zone hills), Alluvial (river), Lithosol (mountain). 14 major groups.
- Graphite — Bogala/Kahatagaha/Ragedara — world's highest purity vein graphite (95-98%).
- Gems — Ratnapura "City of Gems". Blue sapphire + cat's eye world-famous.
- Mineral sands — Pulmoddai (Trincomalee NE coast). Ilmenite, rutile, zircon, monazite.
- Limestone: Puttalam (Aruwakkalu), KKS (Jaffna). சிமெண்ட் primary.
- Energy mix: coal 35% (Norochcholai 900MW), hydro 30%, oil 20%, renewable 15%. Target 70% renewable by 2030.
- Mahaweli hydro: Victoria 210MW, Kotmale 201MW, Randenigala 126MW.
- Wind: Mannar (100MW + expansion).
⚠ மாணவர்கள் செய்யும் பொதுத் தவறுகள்
- EEZ ≠ கடற்கரை நீளம். EEZ = 517,000 km² பரப்பு. கடற்கரை = 1,340 km நீளம்.
- Mahaweli 335 km (NOT 235); இலங்கையின் மிக நீள ஆறு.
- Parakrama Samudra (Polonnaruwa) vs Senanayake Samudra (Gal Oya) — Parakrama = ancient (Polonnaruwa king); Senanayake = modern (1950s D.S. Senanayake era).
- UNESCO heritage = Sinharaja + Central Highlands (Horton Plains + Knuckles + Peak Wilderness) — Yala/Wilpattu NPs UNESCO அல்ல.
- Yala = leopard density (highest in world); Wilpattu = largest area; Udawalawe = elephants; Minneriya = gathering phenomenon.
- Graphite — அளவில் சிறிது (1% world) but **தரத்தில் #1**. குழப்பாதே.
- Ilmenite ≠ iron. Ilmenite = FeTiO₃ → titanium dioxide. மிக மலிவான titanium source.
- Norochcholai = coal power, Sapugaskanda = oil refinery. Both Puttalam district but different roles.
- Bogala graphite mine = Kegalle district (NOT Anuradhapura).
- Ratnapura ≠ Anuradhapura. Ratnapura = gems (Sabaragamuwa); Anuradhapura = ancient capital (North Central).
✅ விரைவுச் சோதனை
முக்கியக் கருத்துக்களை உறுதிப்படுத்துங்கள். தவறான விடைகள் உங்கள் தவறுக் குறிப்பேட்டில் சேமிக்கப்படும்.
🖊 கட்டுரை வினாக்கள் (பகுதி II)
பரீட்சை வடிவில் கட்டமைப்பு வினாக்கள். முதலில் நீங்களே எழுதுங்கள்; பின்னர் மாதிரி விடையைத் திறந்து சரிபாருங்கள்.
1. இலங்கையின் நீர் வளத்தை — மழை, ஆறுகள், பழம் தடாக நாகரிகம், நிலத்தடி நீர் — விளக்குக. (10 புள்ளி)
விடைத் திட்டம் — சேர்க்க வேண்டிய புள்ளிகள்:
- SW + NE monsoons; annual avg ~1860mm; wet zone 2500+; dry <1250
- 103 rivers radial; Mahaweli 335km longest
- 4000+ ancient tanks (Anuradhapura/Polonnaruwa kings)
- Parakrama Samudra 2500ha largest
- Kala Wewa, Senanayake Samudra (modern, Gal Oya)
- Groundwater: Jaffna limestone aquifer, Kalpitiya
- Saltwater intrusion threat (Jaffna)
இலங்கையின் நீர் வளம் — பருவக் காற்று → ஆறு → தடாகம் → நிலத்தடி என்ற chain.
**மழை:** ஆண்டு சராசரி ~1860 mm. பகிர்வு unequal — மலையோர wet zone (Watawala, Nuwara Eliya) 5000+ mm; dry zone (Anuradhapura, Hambantota) <1250 mm. மழை இரு பருவக் காற்று வழியே — **SW Monsoon (Yala — May-Sep)** மலை + SW கடற்கரை, **NE Monsoon (Maha — Oct-Feb)** dry zone + வடகிழக்கு. Inter-monsoon convectional rain (March-April, October).
**ஆறுகள் (Rivers):** 103 perennial rivers — central highlands (Sri Pada area) radial pattern. **Mahaweli (335 km)** — longest, drains to Trincomalee Bay; supports Mahaweli Development Project (largest SL irrigation+hydropower scheme). பிற முக்கிய: Kelani (145km — flows Colombo), Walawe (138), Kalu (129), Malwathu Oya (Aruvi Aru — Anuradhapura), Yan Oya, Deduru Oya, Maha Oya.
**பழம் தடாக நாகரிகம் (Ancient Tank Civilization):** 3000+ ஆண்டு வரலாறு. Anuradhapura + Polonnaruwa கால சிங்களவ அரசர்கள் (Vasabha 67-111 AD, Mahasen, Dhatusena, Parakramabahu I 12th c.) கட்டிய **4000+ tanks** — "tank cascade" system in dry zone catchments. முக்கியம்:
- **Parakrama Samudra** (Polonnaruwa — 2500 ha; "Sea of Parakrama")
- **Kala Wewa** (Anuradhapura — Dhatusena 5th c.)
- **Tissa Wewa, Nuwara Wewa, Yoda Wewa**
- **Senanayake Samudra** (Gal Oya — modern 1950s, D.S. Senanayake era; largest modern reservoir).
இவை வரண்ட வலயத்தின் நெல் களஞ்சியத்திற்கு அடிப்படை — Maha + Yala paddy.
**நிலத்தடி நீர் (Groundwater):** Jaffna Peninsula limestone aquifer (shallow, vulnerable to saltwater intrusion from over-extraction); North Western Kalpitiya sand aquifer; deep aquifers in Mahaweli alluvium. முக்கிய issue — over-pumping → saline contamination.
**Issues:** climate change-driven monsoon variability; Kelani river industrial pollution; dry zone CKDu suspected agro-chemical/fluoride water cause; sand mining destroying river beds.
**Management:** Mahaweli Authority, Irrigation Department, NWS&DB (drinking water), CEA pollution control.
**மழை:** ஆண்டு சராசரி ~1860 mm. பகிர்வு unequal — மலையோர wet zone (Watawala, Nuwara Eliya) 5000+ mm; dry zone (Anuradhapura, Hambantota) <1250 mm. மழை இரு பருவக் காற்று வழியே — **SW Monsoon (Yala — May-Sep)** மலை + SW கடற்கரை, **NE Monsoon (Maha — Oct-Feb)** dry zone + வடகிழக்கு. Inter-monsoon convectional rain (March-April, October).
**ஆறுகள் (Rivers):** 103 perennial rivers — central highlands (Sri Pada area) radial pattern. **Mahaweli (335 km)** — longest, drains to Trincomalee Bay; supports Mahaweli Development Project (largest SL irrigation+hydropower scheme). பிற முக்கிய: Kelani (145km — flows Colombo), Walawe (138), Kalu (129), Malwathu Oya (Aruvi Aru — Anuradhapura), Yan Oya, Deduru Oya, Maha Oya.
**பழம் தடாக நாகரிகம் (Ancient Tank Civilization):** 3000+ ஆண்டு வரலாறு. Anuradhapura + Polonnaruwa கால சிங்களவ அரசர்கள் (Vasabha 67-111 AD, Mahasen, Dhatusena, Parakramabahu I 12th c.) கட்டிய **4000+ tanks** — "tank cascade" system in dry zone catchments. முக்கியம்:
- **Parakrama Samudra** (Polonnaruwa — 2500 ha; "Sea of Parakrama")
- **Kala Wewa** (Anuradhapura — Dhatusena 5th c.)
- **Tissa Wewa, Nuwara Wewa, Yoda Wewa**
- **Senanayake Samudra** (Gal Oya — modern 1950s, D.S. Senanayake era; largest modern reservoir).
இவை வரண்ட வலயத்தின் நெல் களஞ்சியத்திற்கு அடிப்படை — Maha + Yala paddy.
**நிலத்தடி நீர் (Groundwater):** Jaffna Peninsula limestone aquifer (shallow, vulnerable to saltwater intrusion from over-extraction); North Western Kalpitiya sand aquifer; deep aquifers in Mahaweli alluvium. முக்கிய issue — over-pumping → saline contamination.
**Issues:** climate change-driven monsoon variability; Kelani river industrial pollution; dry zone CKDu suspected agro-chemical/fluoride water cause; sand mining destroying river beds.
**Management:** Mahaweli Authority, Irrigation Department, NWS&DB (drinking water), CEA pollution control.
2. இலங்கையின் காடுகளின் முக்கியத்துவம், வகைகள், பாதுகாப்பு பகுதிகள் — விளக்குக. (10 புள்ளி)
விடைத் திட்டம் — சேர்க்க வேண்டிய புள்ளிகள்:
- 29% forest (down from 84% in 1881)
- Biodiversity hotspot — endemic species
- Forest types: wet evergreen, sub-montane, montane cloud, dry mixed, mangrove, savanna
- National Parks: Yala, Wilpattu, Wasgomuwa, Horton Plains, Bundala, Udawalawe, Minneriya
- UNESCO: Sinharaja + Central Highlands
- Forest reserves: Sinharaja, Knuckles, Kanneliya
- Conservation institutions: DWC, Forest Dept, CEA
- Deforestation drivers: chena, plantations, encroachment
இலங்கையின் காடுகள் — நாட்டின் பல்லுயிர் கருவூலம், நீர்ச் சுழற்சி regulator, climate stabiliser. 21 மில்லியன் மக்கள் வாழும் சிறு தீவில் ~29% forest cover (~1.9M ha) ஆசிய சராசரியை விட (20%) அதிகம்.
**Biodiversity Hotspot:** Endemic plants (~830 endemic, 60% of total flora), endemic vertebrates (Sri Lankan leopard, purple-faced langur, sloth bear, Sri Lanka junglefowl), 433 bird species (33 endemic). Conservation International-ன் 36 global biodiversity hotspots-இல் ஒன்று (Western Ghats + SL hotspot).
**Forest Types (7 major):**
1. **Tropical Wet Evergreen** — Sinharaja, Kanneliya, Kanugala. 2500+mm; year-round leaves.
2. **Tropical Sub-montane** — 900-1500m; Hakgala.
3. **Montane Cloud Forest** — 1500m+; Horton Plains, Pidurutalagala. Mossy, foggy.
4. **Tropical Moist Mixed Evergreen** — intermediate zone.
5. **Tropical Dry Mixed Evergreen** — Wilpattu, Yala dry zone. Deciduous tendency.
6. **Mangroves** — Negombo Lagoon, Madu Ganga, Puttalam, Trincomalee — coastal salt-tolerant.
7. **Savannah + Patana grassland** — Horton Plains, mountain patanas, dry zone scrub.
**Protected Areas (~30% of land in some form):**
- **National Parks:** Yala (leopard density highest world!), Wilpattu (~131,693 ha, largest area, "land of lakes"), Wasgomuwa, Horton Plains, Bundala (Ramsar wetland, flamingos), Gal Oya (largest tank), Udawalawe (elephants 400+, Elephant Transit Home), Kumana (birds), Minneriya ("Gathering" 200-300 elephants Aug-Sep).
- **Strict Nature Reserves:** Hakgala, Yala SNR.
- **Forest Reserves:** Sinharaja (UNESCO 1988), Knuckles (UNESCO 2010 as part of Central Highlands), Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya.
- **Sanctuaries:** Kumana bird, Bundala (Ramsar), Madu Ganga.
- **Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO MAB):** Sinharaja, Bundala, Hurulu, Kanneliya complex.
- **UNESCO World Natural Heritage:** Sinharaja Forest Reserve (1988) + Central Highlands (2010 — Horton Plains + Knuckles + Peak Wilderness).
**Conservation Institutions:**
- **Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC)** — National Parks + Sanctuaries.
- **Forest Department** — Forest Reserves + non-NP forests.
- **Central Environmental Authority (CEA)** — pollution + EIA.
- **Ministry of Environment** — policy.
**Deforestation History + Drivers:** 1881 ~84% → 1950 ~44% → 2020 ~29%. British coffee + tea + rubber plantations (19th c.) deforested mid-country. Subsequent: chena (slash-and-burn shifting cultivation), oil palm expansion (21st c.), urban encroachment, hydropower reservoirs (Mahaweli flooded large areas), illegal logging.
**Future:** SL committed to 32% forest cover by 2030; reforestation programs (Re-Greening Sri Lanka), community forestry, eco-tourism revenue sharing.
**Biodiversity Hotspot:** Endemic plants (~830 endemic, 60% of total flora), endemic vertebrates (Sri Lankan leopard, purple-faced langur, sloth bear, Sri Lanka junglefowl), 433 bird species (33 endemic). Conservation International-ன் 36 global biodiversity hotspots-இல் ஒன்று (Western Ghats + SL hotspot).
**Forest Types (7 major):**
1. **Tropical Wet Evergreen** — Sinharaja, Kanneliya, Kanugala. 2500+mm; year-round leaves.
2. **Tropical Sub-montane** — 900-1500m; Hakgala.
3. **Montane Cloud Forest** — 1500m+; Horton Plains, Pidurutalagala. Mossy, foggy.
4. **Tropical Moist Mixed Evergreen** — intermediate zone.
5. **Tropical Dry Mixed Evergreen** — Wilpattu, Yala dry zone. Deciduous tendency.
6. **Mangroves** — Negombo Lagoon, Madu Ganga, Puttalam, Trincomalee — coastal salt-tolerant.
7. **Savannah + Patana grassland** — Horton Plains, mountain patanas, dry zone scrub.
**Protected Areas (~30% of land in some form):**
- **National Parks:** Yala (leopard density highest world!), Wilpattu (~131,693 ha, largest area, "land of lakes"), Wasgomuwa, Horton Plains, Bundala (Ramsar wetland, flamingos), Gal Oya (largest tank), Udawalawe (elephants 400+, Elephant Transit Home), Kumana (birds), Minneriya ("Gathering" 200-300 elephants Aug-Sep).
- **Strict Nature Reserves:** Hakgala, Yala SNR.
- **Forest Reserves:** Sinharaja (UNESCO 1988), Knuckles (UNESCO 2010 as part of Central Highlands), Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya.
- **Sanctuaries:** Kumana bird, Bundala (Ramsar), Madu Ganga.
- **Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO MAB):** Sinharaja, Bundala, Hurulu, Kanneliya complex.
- **UNESCO World Natural Heritage:** Sinharaja Forest Reserve (1988) + Central Highlands (2010 — Horton Plains + Knuckles + Peak Wilderness).
**Conservation Institutions:**
- **Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC)** — National Parks + Sanctuaries.
- **Forest Department** — Forest Reserves + non-NP forests.
- **Central Environmental Authority (CEA)** — pollution + EIA.
- **Ministry of Environment** — policy.
**Deforestation History + Drivers:** 1881 ~84% → 1950 ~44% → 2020 ~29%. British coffee + tea + rubber plantations (19th c.) deforested mid-country. Subsequent: chena (slash-and-burn shifting cultivation), oil palm expansion (21st c.), urban encroachment, hydropower reservoirs (Mahaweli flooded large areas), illegal logging.
**Future:** SL committed to 32% forest cover by 2030; reforestation programs (Re-Greening Sri Lanka), community forestry, eco-tourism revenue sharing.
3. இலங்கையின் கனிய வளங்கள் — Graphite, Gems, Mineral Sands, Limestone — விளக்குக. (10 புள்ளி)
விடைத் திட்டம் — சேர்க்க வேண்டிய புள்ளிகள்:
- Graphite Bogala/Kahatagaha — world's highest purity vein (95-98%)
- Gems Ratnapura — blue sapphire, cat's eye world #1
- Mineral sands Pulmoddai — ilmenite, rutile, zircon, monazite
- Limestone Puttalam Aruwakkalu — cement
- Other: dolomite, quartz, clay, mica, apatite Eppawala, salt, granite
- Economic value: graphite niche, gems export $150-300M, mineral sands export, cement local
- GSMB regulates
இலங்கை சிறு தீவு என்றாலும் — geological antiquity (Precambrian basement) வழியே — பல உலகச் சந்தைக்கு valuable கனியங்கள் கொண்டுள்ளது.
**(1) Graphite — உலகின் சிறந்த தர.**
இலங்கை graphite = **vein graphite** (cracks-இல் hydrothermal deposit), **95-98% pure carbon** — மற்ற நாடுகளில் amorphous/flake graphite 85-90% pure. சுரங்கங்கள்:
- **Bogala** (Aruggammana, Kegalle) — biggest, deepest (560m vertical shaft), continuously operated since 1880s.
- **Kahatagaha-Kolongaha** (Dodangaslanda) — state-owned.
- **Ragedara**.
உலக graphite production-இல் SL ~1% அளவில் ஆனால் pure vein-இல் near-monopoly. பயன்: **lithium-ion battery anodes (EV revolution!)**, pencils, lubricants, brake linings, crucibles, electrodes, conductors. Tesla, Panasonic batteries SL graphite source. Export ~$30M/year.
**(2) Gems — "Ratna Deepa" (Gem Island).**
**Ratnapura** ("City of Gems", Sabaragamuwa Province) = primary gem mining hub. மற்ற fields: Elahera (Matale), Okkampitiya (Monaragala), Pelmadulla. Sapphires, rubies, cat's eyes, alexandrites, garnets, topaz, tourmaline, spinels, zircons, moonstones.
SL world-famous: **Blue Sapphire** ("Ceylon Sapphire" — Princess Diana / Kate Middleton 12-carat engagement ring; Logan Sapphire 423 ct), **Star Sapphire** (Star of India 563 ct — American Museum of Natural History), **Cat's Eye Chrysoberyl** (SL world #1 supplier), **Star Ruby**, **Alexandrite** (colour-changing). Annual gem exports ~$150-300 million. **National Gem & Jewellery Authority (NGJA)** regulates trade + certification.
**(3) Mineral Sands — Pulmoddai.**
Pulmoddai (Trincomalee district NE coast) heavy mineral sand deposit — formed by sea currents concentrating dense minerals on beach.
- **Ilmenite (FeTiO₃)** — titanium dioxide pigment (paint, plastics, sunscreen).
- **Rutile (TiO₂ pure)** — high-grade titanium (aircraft, surgical implants).
- **Zircon (ZrSiO₄)** — ceramics, refractories, nuclear cladding.
- **Monazite** — rare earth elements (REE) + thorium (future nuclear).
- **Garnet, Sillimanite** — abrasives + refractory.
Lanka Mineral Sands Ltd (LMSL) state operator; annual production ~70,000 tons; export China, Japan, USA. மற்ற pilots: Beruwala (small).
**(4) Limestone (சுண்ணாம்புக் கல்) — Cement.**
- **Aruwakkalu** (Puttalam — Holcim Lanka / INSEE Cement; nation's biggest cement plant).
- **Kankesanthurai (KKS)** (Jaffna Peninsula — historic Holcim/SLCC).
- **Eppawala** (Anuradhapura).
SL cement industry partially self-sufficient; clinker imported also.
**(5) பிற Important Minerals:**
- **Dolomite** — Matale, Digana — agricultural lime, glass.
- **Apatite/Phosphate** — **Eppawala** (Anuradhapura — Lanka Phosphate Ltd) — fertilizer.
- **Salt** — Hambantota (Lanka Salt Ltd), Puttalam — solar evaporation pans.
- **Quartz + Feldspar** — Owala, Polgolla — ceramics (Noritake, Dankotuwa porcelain).
- **Clay (Kaolin)** — Boralesgamuwa, Dedigama — ceramics, bricks.
- **Mica** — Matale.
- **Granite** — Tantirimale, Habarana — construction, export to Middle East.
**Regulator:** **Geological Survey & Mines Bureau (GSMB)** — exploration + licensing + EIA + revenue sharing.
**(1) Graphite — உலகின் சிறந்த தர.**
இலங்கை graphite = **vein graphite** (cracks-இல் hydrothermal deposit), **95-98% pure carbon** — மற்ற நாடுகளில் amorphous/flake graphite 85-90% pure. சுரங்கங்கள்:
- **Bogala** (Aruggammana, Kegalle) — biggest, deepest (560m vertical shaft), continuously operated since 1880s.
- **Kahatagaha-Kolongaha** (Dodangaslanda) — state-owned.
- **Ragedara**.
உலக graphite production-இல் SL ~1% அளவில் ஆனால் pure vein-இல் near-monopoly. பயன்: **lithium-ion battery anodes (EV revolution!)**, pencils, lubricants, brake linings, crucibles, electrodes, conductors. Tesla, Panasonic batteries SL graphite source. Export ~$30M/year.
**(2) Gems — "Ratna Deepa" (Gem Island).**
**Ratnapura** ("City of Gems", Sabaragamuwa Province) = primary gem mining hub. மற்ற fields: Elahera (Matale), Okkampitiya (Monaragala), Pelmadulla. Sapphires, rubies, cat's eyes, alexandrites, garnets, topaz, tourmaline, spinels, zircons, moonstones.
SL world-famous: **Blue Sapphire** ("Ceylon Sapphire" — Princess Diana / Kate Middleton 12-carat engagement ring; Logan Sapphire 423 ct), **Star Sapphire** (Star of India 563 ct — American Museum of Natural History), **Cat's Eye Chrysoberyl** (SL world #1 supplier), **Star Ruby**, **Alexandrite** (colour-changing). Annual gem exports ~$150-300 million. **National Gem & Jewellery Authority (NGJA)** regulates trade + certification.
**(3) Mineral Sands — Pulmoddai.**
Pulmoddai (Trincomalee district NE coast) heavy mineral sand deposit — formed by sea currents concentrating dense minerals on beach.
- **Ilmenite (FeTiO₃)** — titanium dioxide pigment (paint, plastics, sunscreen).
- **Rutile (TiO₂ pure)** — high-grade titanium (aircraft, surgical implants).
- **Zircon (ZrSiO₄)** — ceramics, refractories, nuclear cladding.
- **Monazite** — rare earth elements (REE) + thorium (future nuclear).
- **Garnet, Sillimanite** — abrasives + refractory.
Lanka Mineral Sands Ltd (LMSL) state operator; annual production ~70,000 tons; export China, Japan, USA. மற்ற pilots: Beruwala (small).
**(4) Limestone (சுண்ணாம்புக் கல்) — Cement.**
- **Aruwakkalu** (Puttalam — Holcim Lanka / INSEE Cement; nation's biggest cement plant).
- **Kankesanthurai (KKS)** (Jaffna Peninsula — historic Holcim/SLCC).
- **Eppawala** (Anuradhapura).
SL cement industry partially self-sufficient; clinker imported also.
**(5) பிற Important Minerals:**
- **Dolomite** — Matale, Digana — agricultural lime, glass.
- **Apatite/Phosphate** — **Eppawala** (Anuradhapura — Lanka Phosphate Ltd) — fertilizer.
- **Salt** — Hambantota (Lanka Salt Ltd), Puttalam — solar evaporation pans.
- **Quartz + Feldspar** — Owala, Polgolla — ceramics (Noritake, Dankotuwa porcelain).
- **Clay (Kaolin)** — Boralesgamuwa, Dedigama — ceramics, bricks.
- **Mica** — Matale.
- **Granite** — Tantirimale, Habarana — construction, export to Middle East.
**Regulator:** **Geological Survey & Mines Bureau (GSMB)** — exploration + licensing + EIA + revenue sharing.
4. இலங்கையின் சக்தி வளம் — Hydro, Coal, Oil, Renewable — விளக்குக. 2030 renewable target என்ன? (10 புள்ளி)
விடைத் திட்டம் — சேர்க்க வேண்டிய புள்ளிகள்:
- Energy mix: coal 35% + hydro 30% + oil 20% + RE 15%
- Hydro: Mahaweli complex (Victoria 210MW etc) + Laxapana + Samanalawewa, total ~1700MW
- Coal: Norochcholai 900MW (Chinese 2011)
- Oil: Sapugaskanda refinery 50,000 bpsd; Kelanitissa CCGT
- Wind: Mannar 100MW + expansion
- Solar: Soorya Bala Sangramaya rooftop + Hambantota
- Biomass: rice husk, dendro
- Target: 70% renewable by 2030
- Challenges: 100% coal+oil import, EV future
இலங்கை energy = mix of hydro heritage + new coal/renewables + imported oil dependency.
**Current Energy Mix (~2023 grid electricity):**
- **Coal ~35%** — Norochcholai Lakvijaya Power Plant only.
- **Hydro ~30%** — Mahaweli + Laxapana + Samanalawewa complexes.
- **Oil ~20%** — diesel + fuel oil thermal stations.
- **Renewables ~15%** — wind, solar, biomass, small hydro.
**(அ) Hydro (நீர்மின்சாரம்) ~30%:**
SL's oldest + cleanest source. Total installed capacity ~1700 MW.
- **Mahaweli Hydro Complex:** Victoria (210 MW — largest, UK aid 1985), Kotmale (201 MW), Randenigala (126 MW), Rantembe (51 MW), Ulhitiya-Rathkinda.
- **Laxapana Complex (Castlereagh-Maussakelle):** New Laxapana 100 MW, Wimalasurendra 50 MW, Old Laxapana 50 MW, Polpitiya 75 MW.
- **Samanalawewa** 120 MW (Walawe basin).
- **Kukule Ganga** 70 MW (Sinharaja foothills).
- **Mini/Small hydro** ~400 MW (private investor + community).
Limitation: monsoon-dependent (dry year = power crisis 1996, 2017, 2024). Most major sites already developed.
**(ஆ) Coal (Thermal) ~35%:**
**Norochcholai (Lakvijaya) Power Plant** — Puttalam district NW coast. 3 × 300 MW = 900 MW total. Built by China Machinery Engineering Corp (CMEC) — $1.35 billion loan; commissioned 2011-14. 100% coal imported (Russia, South Africa, Indonesia). ~35% national electricity. Operational issues — multiple breakdowns, cost overruns.
**(இ) Oil (Petroleum) ~20%:**
- **Sapugaskanda Oil Refinery** (CPC, 1969, Iranian tech) — 50,000 bpsd; crude imported (Saudi/UAE/Russia/Oman); products petrol/diesel/kerosene/jet fuel/LPG/naphtha/asphalt.
- **Kelanitissa Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT)** 165+165 MW — runs on naphtha + LSFO + diesel.
- **Sapugaskanda thermal** — diesel-fired peaker.
- 2022 fuel crisis — forex shortage halted oil imports, blackouts.
**(ஈ) Renewables ~15%:**
- **Wind:** Mannar Wind Farm (Adani / CEB JV, 100 MW commissioned 2024, expansion to 250+ MW planned). Smaller sites Kalpitiya, Hambantota.
- **Solar:** "Soorya Bala Sangramaya" (Battle of Solar Energy) 2016 rooftop PV scheme — net metering for households + businesses; ~700 MW installed. Hambantota Welikanda solar park 100 MW. Multiple ground-mount plants.
- **Biomass:** rice husk power plants (CEB pilots), sugarcane bagasse cogeneration, dendro (Gliricidia) wood plantations for fuel.
- **Geothermal:** essentially zero (no volcanic activity).
- **Wave/Tidal:** pilots only.
**Target:** **70% renewable electricity by 2030** — ambitious. Implementation includes: 3000+ MW solar PV, 1500+ MW wind, additional small hydro, biomass + biogas. Battery storage critical for intermittency. Grid modernization needed.
**Challenges:**
1. **100% coal + oil imported** — forex burden + geopolitics (Russia-Ukraine 2022 oil spike).
2. **CEB financial losses** — tariff < cost recovery; political pricing.
3. **Grid bottleneck** — northern + eastern transmission lines for Mannar/Pulmoddai renewables.
4. **Land + community opposition** — wind/solar farms vs farmland/forests.
5. **EV revolution** — future electric vehicle adoption needs grid expansion + green generation.
6. **2022 economic crisis** — fuel scarcity exposed import dependency.
**Future moves:** LNG import terminal (Kerawalapitiya), Hambantota 2nd refinery (Sinopec — delayed), Mannar Basin offshore oil/gas exploration (Cairn India, Total, ExxonMobil prior interest), hydrogen economy potential, EV transition + charging infrastructure.
**Current Energy Mix (~2023 grid electricity):**
- **Coal ~35%** — Norochcholai Lakvijaya Power Plant only.
- **Hydro ~30%** — Mahaweli + Laxapana + Samanalawewa complexes.
- **Oil ~20%** — diesel + fuel oil thermal stations.
- **Renewables ~15%** — wind, solar, biomass, small hydro.
**(அ) Hydro (நீர்மின்சாரம்) ~30%:**
SL's oldest + cleanest source. Total installed capacity ~1700 MW.
- **Mahaweli Hydro Complex:** Victoria (210 MW — largest, UK aid 1985), Kotmale (201 MW), Randenigala (126 MW), Rantembe (51 MW), Ulhitiya-Rathkinda.
- **Laxapana Complex (Castlereagh-Maussakelle):** New Laxapana 100 MW, Wimalasurendra 50 MW, Old Laxapana 50 MW, Polpitiya 75 MW.
- **Samanalawewa** 120 MW (Walawe basin).
- **Kukule Ganga** 70 MW (Sinharaja foothills).
- **Mini/Small hydro** ~400 MW (private investor + community).
Limitation: monsoon-dependent (dry year = power crisis 1996, 2017, 2024). Most major sites already developed.
**(ஆ) Coal (Thermal) ~35%:**
**Norochcholai (Lakvijaya) Power Plant** — Puttalam district NW coast. 3 × 300 MW = 900 MW total. Built by China Machinery Engineering Corp (CMEC) — $1.35 billion loan; commissioned 2011-14. 100% coal imported (Russia, South Africa, Indonesia). ~35% national electricity. Operational issues — multiple breakdowns, cost overruns.
**(இ) Oil (Petroleum) ~20%:**
- **Sapugaskanda Oil Refinery** (CPC, 1969, Iranian tech) — 50,000 bpsd; crude imported (Saudi/UAE/Russia/Oman); products petrol/diesel/kerosene/jet fuel/LPG/naphtha/asphalt.
- **Kelanitissa Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT)** 165+165 MW — runs on naphtha + LSFO + diesel.
- **Sapugaskanda thermal** — diesel-fired peaker.
- 2022 fuel crisis — forex shortage halted oil imports, blackouts.
**(ஈ) Renewables ~15%:**
- **Wind:** Mannar Wind Farm (Adani / CEB JV, 100 MW commissioned 2024, expansion to 250+ MW planned). Smaller sites Kalpitiya, Hambantota.
- **Solar:** "Soorya Bala Sangramaya" (Battle of Solar Energy) 2016 rooftop PV scheme — net metering for households + businesses; ~700 MW installed. Hambantota Welikanda solar park 100 MW. Multiple ground-mount plants.
- **Biomass:** rice husk power plants (CEB pilots), sugarcane bagasse cogeneration, dendro (Gliricidia) wood plantations for fuel.
- **Geothermal:** essentially zero (no volcanic activity).
- **Wave/Tidal:** pilots only.
**Target:** **70% renewable electricity by 2030** — ambitious. Implementation includes: 3000+ MW solar PV, 1500+ MW wind, additional small hydro, biomass + biogas. Battery storage critical for intermittency. Grid modernization needed.
**Challenges:**
1. **100% coal + oil imported** — forex burden + geopolitics (Russia-Ukraine 2022 oil spike).
2. **CEB financial losses** — tariff < cost recovery; political pricing.
3. **Grid bottleneck** — northern + eastern transmission lines for Mannar/Pulmoddai renewables.
4. **Land + community opposition** — wind/solar farms vs farmland/forests.
5. **EV revolution** — future electric vehicle adoption needs grid expansion + green generation.
6. **2022 economic crisis** — fuel scarcity exposed import dependency.
**Future moves:** LNG import terminal (Kerawalapitiya), Hambantota 2nd refinery (Sinopec — delayed), Mannar Basin offshore oil/gas exploration (Cairn India, Total, ExxonMobil prior interest), hydrogen economy potential, EV transition + charging infrastructure.
5. \"Mahaweli Development Programme\" — இலங்கையின் largest multi-purpose project — விளக்குக. (8 புள்ளி)
விடைத் திட்டம் — சேர்க்க வேண்டிய புள்ளிகள்:
- 1968 Master Plan; 1977 acceleration
- Largest SL water resource development
- Catchment: Mahaweli basin (10,448 km²)
- 5 dams: Polgolla, Kotmale, Victoria, Randenigala, Rantembe
- Hydro ~700 MW + irrigation 365,000 ha
- Settled 1+ million people in dry zone
- New towns: Dehiattakandiya, Girandurukotte, etc.
- Environmental concerns: forest loss, displaced people, biodiversity
Mahaweli Development Programme (MDP) — SL post-independence ஆராய்ச்சியில் கட்டப்பட்ட largest infrastructure + irrigation + hydropower + resettlement project. தற்போதைய dry zone agriculture-ன் backbone.
**வரலாறு:**
- 1958 - பரிசீலனை தொடக்கம் (UN expert mission).
- **1968 - UNDP/FAO Mahaweli Master Plan** approved.
- 1970s - வேலைத் தொடக்கம், மெதுவாக.
- **1977 - Accelerated Mahaweli Programme (AMP)** under President J.R. Jayewardene. International aid (UK, Germany, Sweden, Japan, World Bank, ADB). 30-year plan compressed to 6 years.
- 1985 - முக்கிய dams commissioned.
- Ongoing - completion + maintenance + expansion to dry zone.
**Geographic Scope:**
Mahaweli river basin = 10,448 km² (16% of SL land area). Catchment spans wet zone central highlands → dry zone NCP/EP. River length 335 km — SL's longest.
**5 முக்கிய dams + reservoirs (in Mahaweli main stem):**
1. **Polgolla Barrage** (Kandy) — diverts water to dry zone via Sudu Ganga tunnel + Bowatenna reservoir.
2. **Kotmale Dam** (201 MW + Maskeliya tributary).
3. **Victoria Dam** (210 MW — largest; UK aid; impressive 122m arch dam).
4. **Randenigala Dam** (126 MW).
5. **Rantembe Dam** (51 MW — last in cascade).
Plus subsidiary: Ulhitiya, Rathkinda, Maduru Oya, Senanayake Samudra (Gal Oya).
**Key Outputs:**
- **Hydropower:** ~700 MW installed (Mahaweli Complex) — ~25% of national grid in wet years.
- **Irrigation:** 365,000 ha new + improved irrigation; ~600,000 ha eventually planned.
- **Resettlement:** 1+ million people resettled from wet zone (Kandy, Matale) + landless to new dry zone farms. New towns built: Dehiattakandiya, Girandurukotte, Aralaganwila, Welikanda.
- **Agricultural transformation:** dry zone became national paddy granary. Tobacco, sugarcane, soybean, banana also cultivated.
- **Drinking water:** several major town supplies fed by Mahaweli reservoirs.
**Environmental + Social Concerns:**
- **Forest clearance** — hundreds of thousands of hectares lost (Knuckles foothills, dry zone scrub).
- **Wildlife displacement** — elephants, leopards lost habitat → human-elephant conflict.
- **Sediment trapping** — dams reduce nutrient flow to downstream rice fields + coast.
- **Displacement trauma** — original wet zone communities relocated to harsh dry zone; cultural disruption.
- **Indigenous Vedda community** — Mahaweli zones overlap with traditional Vedda lands; rights violations.
- **Vector diseases** — malaria, dengue increased in new reservoir + irrigation areas.
- **Sectarian tensions** — dry zone resettlement involved Sinhalese-majority displacement to Tamil-majority Eastern Province; contributed to ethnic conflict.
**Management:** Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL) — statutory body. Operates dams + irrigation networks + tank cascades + settlement administration. Modernization ongoing — drip irrigation, water-use efficiency, climate adaptation.
**Legacy:** Despite criticism, MDP transformed SL agriculture, energy supply, regional development. தற்போது net food deficit nation → near self-sufficient in rice; nuclear power-saving via hydro; rural livelihoods of millions.
**வரலாறு:**
- 1958 - பரிசீலனை தொடக்கம் (UN expert mission).
- **1968 - UNDP/FAO Mahaweli Master Plan** approved.
- 1970s - வேலைத் தொடக்கம், மெதுவாக.
- **1977 - Accelerated Mahaweli Programme (AMP)** under President J.R. Jayewardene. International aid (UK, Germany, Sweden, Japan, World Bank, ADB). 30-year plan compressed to 6 years.
- 1985 - முக்கிய dams commissioned.
- Ongoing - completion + maintenance + expansion to dry zone.
**Geographic Scope:**
Mahaweli river basin = 10,448 km² (16% of SL land area). Catchment spans wet zone central highlands → dry zone NCP/EP. River length 335 km — SL's longest.
**5 முக்கிய dams + reservoirs (in Mahaweli main stem):**
1. **Polgolla Barrage** (Kandy) — diverts water to dry zone via Sudu Ganga tunnel + Bowatenna reservoir.
2. **Kotmale Dam** (201 MW + Maskeliya tributary).
3. **Victoria Dam** (210 MW — largest; UK aid; impressive 122m arch dam).
4. **Randenigala Dam** (126 MW).
5. **Rantembe Dam** (51 MW — last in cascade).
Plus subsidiary: Ulhitiya, Rathkinda, Maduru Oya, Senanayake Samudra (Gal Oya).
**Key Outputs:**
- **Hydropower:** ~700 MW installed (Mahaweli Complex) — ~25% of national grid in wet years.
- **Irrigation:** 365,000 ha new + improved irrigation; ~600,000 ha eventually planned.
- **Resettlement:** 1+ million people resettled from wet zone (Kandy, Matale) + landless to new dry zone farms. New towns built: Dehiattakandiya, Girandurukotte, Aralaganwila, Welikanda.
- **Agricultural transformation:** dry zone became national paddy granary. Tobacco, sugarcane, soybean, banana also cultivated.
- **Drinking water:** several major town supplies fed by Mahaweli reservoirs.
**Environmental + Social Concerns:**
- **Forest clearance** — hundreds of thousands of hectares lost (Knuckles foothills, dry zone scrub).
- **Wildlife displacement** — elephants, leopards lost habitat → human-elephant conflict.
- **Sediment trapping** — dams reduce nutrient flow to downstream rice fields + coast.
- **Displacement trauma** — original wet zone communities relocated to harsh dry zone; cultural disruption.
- **Indigenous Vedda community** — Mahaweli zones overlap with traditional Vedda lands; rights violations.
- **Vector diseases** — malaria, dengue increased in new reservoir + irrigation areas.
- **Sectarian tensions** — dry zone resettlement involved Sinhalese-majority displacement to Tamil-majority Eastern Province; contributed to ethnic conflict.
**Management:** Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL) — statutory body. Operates dams + irrigation networks + tank cascades + settlement administration. Modernization ongoing — drip irrigation, water-use efficiency, climate adaptation.
**Legacy:** Despite criticism, MDP transformed SL agriculture, energy supply, regional development. தற்போது net food deficit nation → near self-sufficient in rice; nuclear power-saving via hydro; rural livelihoods of millions.
6. \"Sinharaja Rainforest\" — UNESCO World Heritage Site — பற்றி விரிவாக விளக்குக. (8 புள்ளி)
விடைத் திட்டம் — சேர்க்க வேண்டிய புள்ளிகள்:
- 11,187 ha; lowland rainforest in Sabaragamuwa + Southern provinces
- Last viable primary rainforest in SL
- UNESCO World Heritage 1988
- Biosphere Reserve 1978
- 60% endemic plants, 50%+ endemic vertebrates
- Climate: 3500-5000mm rain; year-round
- Threats: encroachment, mining, tourism pressure
- Conservation: Forest Dept management
"Sinharaja" ("Lion King") — இலங்கையின் primary lowland rainforest, biodiversity treasure, UNESCO World Heritage tag holder.
**இருப்பிடம் + பரப்பு:** 11,187 ha; Sabaragamuwa Province (Ratnapura district) + Southern Province (Galle district) overlap. கொழும்பிலிருந்து ~150 km SE. பகுதி hills 200-1300m elevation.
**UNESCO ஏற்பு:**
- **1978** — UNESCO Man and Biosphere (MAB) Reserve.
- **1988** — UNESCO World Heritage Site (Natural Criteria ix + x: ecological/biological processes + biodiversity).
- 1996 — extended to include adjacent forests.
**Biodiversity:**
- **Endemic plants:** ~60% of woody plants endemic to SL; ~830 endemic flora total in SL much in Sinharaja.
- **Endemic vertebrates:** 50% of SL endemic mammals, reptiles, butterflies found here.
- **Birds:** 147 species + 33 SL endemic birds (e.g. Sri Lanka Blue Magpie, Red-faced Malkoha, Green-billed Coucal). Famous mixed-species flock phenomenon.
- **Mammals:** Purple-faced langur, leopard, fishing cat, mouse deer, otter, slender loris.
- **Reptiles:** SL endemic agamids, snakes, geckos.
- **Insects:** ~80 endemic butterfly species; world's only known place for some.
- **Plants:** Mesua nagassarium, Shorea spp. (dipterocarps — emergent canopy 40-50m tall), tree ferns, orchids, ginger.
**Climate:**
- Annual rainfall **3500-5000 mm** — among wettest in SL.
- Temperature 19-34°C, humidity 75-90% — year-round.
- Both SW + NE monsoons contribute.
**Geology + Hydrology:**
Precambrian basement rock; lateritic + reddish-brown soils. Several streams originate here — Kalu Ganga + Gin Ganga + Nilwala tributaries → water security for SW SL.
**Human History:**
Traditional gathering economy — Sinharaja villagers gather rattan, cardamom, beeswax, medicinal plants under controlled licenses. "Mae Vee" rice traditionally near forest edge.
**Threats:**
1. **Encroachment** — illegal cultivation, settlement (especially southern edge).
2. **Mining** — sand, gemstones in periphery.
3. **Roads + tourism pressure** — increasing visitor footfall (~50,000/year).
4. **Edge effects** — small + isolated patches near boundary degrade.
5. **Climate change** — altered rainfall, temperature stress.
6. **Invasive species** — eucalyptus, alstonia.
7. **Hydropower** — Kukule Ganga reservoir on edge.
**Conservation Management:**
- **Forest Department** (Sri Lanka Sustainable Tourism Authority + IUCN) joint management.
- Buffer zone (1.4 km wide) regulates extraction.
- Visitors must be accompanied by trained naturalist guides — research permits required.
- Local community livelihood programs (eco-tourism guide certification, handicrafts).
- Continuous biodiversity research (national + international universities).
**Visitor Access:** Kudawa entrance (Kalawana, Ratnapura side — main) + Pitadeniya entrance (southern, Deniyaya). Day tours and overnight stays in surrounding ecolodges.
**Significance:** "Sinharaja is to Sri Lanka what Galapagos is to Ecuador" — biological isolation + endemism scientific value. Last remaining primary lowland rainforest in SL — once lost, gone forever.
**இருப்பிடம் + பரப்பு:** 11,187 ha; Sabaragamuwa Province (Ratnapura district) + Southern Province (Galle district) overlap. கொழும்பிலிருந்து ~150 km SE. பகுதி hills 200-1300m elevation.
**UNESCO ஏற்பு:**
- **1978** — UNESCO Man and Biosphere (MAB) Reserve.
- **1988** — UNESCO World Heritage Site (Natural Criteria ix + x: ecological/biological processes + biodiversity).
- 1996 — extended to include adjacent forests.
**Biodiversity:**
- **Endemic plants:** ~60% of woody plants endemic to SL; ~830 endemic flora total in SL much in Sinharaja.
- **Endemic vertebrates:** 50% of SL endemic mammals, reptiles, butterflies found here.
- **Birds:** 147 species + 33 SL endemic birds (e.g. Sri Lanka Blue Magpie, Red-faced Malkoha, Green-billed Coucal). Famous mixed-species flock phenomenon.
- **Mammals:** Purple-faced langur, leopard, fishing cat, mouse deer, otter, slender loris.
- **Reptiles:** SL endemic agamids, snakes, geckos.
- **Insects:** ~80 endemic butterfly species; world's only known place for some.
- **Plants:** Mesua nagassarium, Shorea spp. (dipterocarps — emergent canopy 40-50m tall), tree ferns, orchids, ginger.
**Climate:**
- Annual rainfall **3500-5000 mm** — among wettest in SL.
- Temperature 19-34°C, humidity 75-90% — year-round.
- Both SW + NE monsoons contribute.
**Geology + Hydrology:**
Precambrian basement rock; lateritic + reddish-brown soils. Several streams originate here — Kalu Ganga + Gin Ganga + Nilwala tributaries → water security for SW SL.
**Human History:**
Traditional gathering economy — Sinharaja villagers gather rattan, cardamom, beeswax, medicinal plants under controlled licenses. "Mae Vee" rice traditionally near forest edge.
**Threats:**
1. **Encroachment** — illegal cultivation, settlement (especially southern edge).
2. **Mining** — sand, gemstones in periphery.
3. **Roads + tourism pressure** — increasing visitor footfall (~50,000/year).
4. **Edge effects** — small + isolated patches near boundary degrade.
5. **Climate change** — altered rainfall, temperature stress.
6. **Invasive species** — eucalyptus, alstonia.
7. **Hydropower** — Kukule Ganga reservoir on edge.
**Conservation Management:**
- **Forest Department** (Sri Lanka Sustainable Tourism Authority + IUCN) joint management.
- Buffer zone (1.4 km wide) regulates extraction.
- Visitors must be accompanied by trained naturalist guides — research permits required.
- Local community livelihood programs (eco-tourism guide certification, handicrafts).
- Continuous biodiversity research (national + international universities).
**Visitor Access:** Kudawa entrance (Kalawana, Ratnapura side — main) + Pitadeniya entrance (southern, Deniyaya). Day tours and overnight stays in surrounding ecolodges.
**Significance:** "Sinharaja is to Sri Lanka what Galapagos is to Ecuador" — biological isolation + endemism scientific value. Last remaining primary lowland rainforest in SL — once lost, gone forever.
7. இலங்கையின் EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone) — UNCLOS 1982 — பொருளாதார + உத்தி முக்கியத்துவம் — விளக்குக. (8 புள்ளி)
விடைத் திட்டம் — சேர்க்க வேண்டிய புள்ளிகள்:
- EEZ = 200 NM (~370 km) from coast; ~517,000 km²
- 7x larger than SL landmass
- UNCLOS 1982 framework
- Exclusive rights: fishing, seabed minerals, energy, marine research
- Tuna export ~$300M; potential offshore oil Mannar Basin
- Indian Ocean strategic location
- Maritime disputes: India fishermen, Maldives boundary
- Defence + naval needs
EEZ = Exclusive Economic Zone = கடற்கரையிலிருந்து 200 nautical miles (~370 km) வரை, ஒரு கடற்கரை நாட்டிற்கு UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982)-ன்படி exclusive economic rights உள்ள கடல் பகுதி.
**Sri Lanka's EEZ:**
- கடற்கரை = 1,340 km.
- EEZ = **~517,000 km²** = நாட்டு நிலப் பகுதியின் (65,610 km²) **7 மடங்கு**.
- Indian Ocean பகுதி; Bay of Bengal + Arabian Sea + south Indian Ocean overlap.
**UNCLOS 1982 Framework:**
Sri Lanka 1982 signed, 1994 ratified. 200 NM EEZ universal standard. Within EEZ:
- **Exclusive Sovereign Rights:** fishing, mineral extraction, offshore oil/gas, marine scientific research, environmental protection.
- **Other countries' rights:** free navigation (innocent passage), overflight, cable + pipeline laying.
- **Continental shelf** can extend beyond 200 NM in some cases (SL submitted claim 2009).
**பொருளாதார முக்கியத்துவம் (Economic):**
1. **Fisheries:** Indian Ocean's tuna-rich grounds. Coastal (5km), Deep Sea (5-200 NM), Inland zones. **Tuna export ~$300 million/year**; yellowfin + skipjack + bigeye to EU/Japan/USA. Total fisheries ~2.5% GDP, employs 250,000+. Lanka Mineral Sands Pulmoddai also coastal.
2. **Offshore Oil + Gas:** **Mannar Basin** (NW EEZ) — early exploration by Cairn India (2011 Dorado-1 well: gas found but commercially marginal), TotalEnergies, ExxonMobil interest, currently dormant due to global oil price + financing. **Pulmoddai Basin** (NE) less explored. Estimated reserves significant but proven undeveloped. Future potential billion-dollar industry if explored.
3. **Seabed Minerals:** Polymetallic nodules (manganese, nickel, cobalt) suspected in deep EEZ; mineral sands extensions; phosphorite. Pulmoddai onshore + offshore continuation.
4. **Maritime Tourism:** Whale + dolphin watching (Mirissa, Trincomalee — "blue whale capital"), reef snorkelling, sailing, cruise ports.
5. **Ports + Shipping:** **Colombo Port** — South Asia's largest container transshipment hub (~6 million TEU/year). **Hambantota Port** (Chinese-leased 99 years, controversy). **Trincomalee Natural Harbour** (one of world's largest natural deepwater harbours). India-China-USA geopolitical interest.
6. **Submarine Cables:** Indian Ocean fibre cable hub — SEA-ME-WE 3/4/5/6, BBG, Asia-Africa-Europe-1. SL hosts landing stations.
**உத்தி முக்கியத்துவம் (Strategic):**
1. **Geographic Position:** Indian Ocean shipping lane epicentre — east-west (Suez-Malacca) + north-south (Africa-Asia-Australia) routes. ~50% global container traffic passes near SL.
2. **Geopolitical Tensions:** USA + India ↔ China rivalry. China's Belt and Road (Hambantota port lease 2017) vs India's traditional sphere of influence. SL pressed to balance.
3. **Naval Capacity:** SLN (Sri Lanka Navy) needs to patrol EEZ — but limited fleet. Indian Coast Guard cooperation. Anti-piracy joint exercises.
4. **Fisheries Conflicts:**
- **Indian fishermen** (Tamil Nadu Rameswaram trawlers) routinely cross into SL EEZ — bottom trawling destroys habitat; 30+ years long-running issue.
- **Pakistani fishermen** similar issues in past.
- 2008-09 LTTE-era SL Navy gun-boat clashes with Indian fishing boats.
- Bilateral talks ongoing; rotational fishing arrangements proposed.
5. **Defence:** SL Navy needs blue-water capability for EEZ enforcement. Limited submarines. Cooperation with India, USA (Indo-Pacific strategy), China (Hambantota).
6. **Climate + Maritime Boundaries:** Rising sea levels threaten coastal infrastructure + sovereignty claims. Maritime boundary with Maldives, Bay of Bengal claim with India + Bangladesh.
**Future Challenges:**
- Oil/gas exploration revival (capital + environmental concerns).
- Sustainable fisheries (over-fishing tuna stocks).
- Plastic + chemical pollution in EEZ.
- Climate change (coral bleaching, fishery shifts).
- Geopolitical balancing (India-China-USA pressures).
- Indian fishermen issue resolution.
EEZ-ஐ wisely manage செய்தால் SL Indian Ocean's 'maritime Singapore'-ஆக மாற இயக்கம் சாத்தியம்.
**Sri Lanka's EEZ:**
- கடற்கரை = 1,340 km.
- EEZ = **~517,000 km²** = நாட்டு நிலப் பகுதியின் (65,610 km²) **7 மடங்கு**.
- Indian Ocean பகுதி; Bay of Bengal + Arabian Sea + south Indian Ocean overlap.
**UNCLOS 1982 Framework:**
Sri Lanka 1982 signed, 1994 ratified. 200 NM EEZ universal standard. Within EEZ:
- **Exclusive Sovereign Rights:** fishing, mineral extraction, offshore oil/gas, marine scientific research, environmental protection.
- **Other countries' rights:** free navigation (innocent passage), overflight, cable + pipeline laying.
- **Continental shelf** can extend beyond 200 NM in some cases (SL submitted claim 2009).
**பொருளாதார முக்கியத்துவம் (Economic):**
1. **Fisheries:** Indian Ocean's tuna-rich grounds. Coastal (5km), Deep Sea (5-200 NM), Inland zones. **Tuna export ~$300 million/year**; yellowfin + skipjack + bigeye to EU/Japan/USA. Total fisheries ~2.5% GDP, employs 250,000+. Lanka Mineral Sands Pulmoddai also coastal.
2. **Offshore Oil + Gas:** **Mannar Basin** (NW EEZ) — early exploration by Cairn India (2011 Dorado-1 well: gas found but commercially marginal), TotalEnergies, ExxonMobil interest, currently dormant due to global oil price + financing. **Pulmoddai Basin** (NE) less explored. Estimated reserves significant but proven undeveloped. Future potential billion-dollar industry if explored.
3. **Seabed Minerals:** Polymetallic nodules (manganese, nickel, cobalt) suspected in deep EEZ; mineral sands extensions; phosphorite. Pulmoddai onshore + offshore continuation.
4. **Maritime Tourism:** Whale + dolphin watching (Mirissa, Trincomalee — "blue whale capital"), reef snorkelling, sailing, cruise ports.
5. **Ports + Shipping:** **Colombo Port** — South Asia's largest container transshipment hub (~6 million TEU/year). **Hambantota Port** (Chinese-leased 99 years, controversy). **Trincomalee Natural Harbour** (one of world's largest natural deepwater harbours). India-China-USA geopolitical interest.
6. **Submarine Cables:** Indian Ocean fibre cable hub — SEA-ME-WE 3/4/5/6, BBG, Asia-Africa-Europe-1. SL hosts landing stations.
**உத்தி முக்கியத்துவம் (Strategic):**
1. **Geographic Position:** Indian Ocean shipping lane epicentre — east-west (Suez-Malacca) + north-south (Africa-Asia-Australia) routes. ~50% global container traffic passes near SL.
2. **Geopolitical Tensions:** USA + India ↔ China rivalry. China's Belt and Road (Hambantota port lease 2017) vs India's traditional sphere of influence. SL pressed to balance.
3. **Naval Capacity:** SLN (Sri Lanka Navy) needs to patrol EEZ — but limited fleet. Indian Coast Guard cooperation. Anti-piracy joint exercises.
4. **Fisheries Conflicts:**
- **Indian fishermen** (Tamil Nadu Rameswaram trawlers) routinely cross into SL EEZ — bottom trawling destroys habitat; 30+ years long-running issue.
- **Pakistani fishermen** similar issues in past.
- 2008-09 LTTE-era SL Navy gun-boat clashes with Indian fishing boats.
- Bilateral talks ongoing; rotational fishing arrangements proposed.
5. **Defence:** SL Navy needs blue-water capability for EEZ enforcement. Limited submarines. Cooperation with India, USA (Indo-Pacific strategy), China (Hambantota).
6. **Climate + Maritime Boundaries:** Rising sea levels threaten coastal infrastructure + sovereignty claims. Maritime boundary with Maldives, Bay of Bengal claim with India + Bangladesh.
**Future Challenges:**
- Oil/gas exploration revival (capital + environmental concerns).
- Sustainable fisheries (over-fishing tuna stocks).
- Plastic + chemical pollution in EEZ.
- Climate change (coral bleaching, fishery shifts).
- Geopolitical balancing (India-China-USA pressures).
- Indian fishermen issue resolution.
EEZ-ஐ wisely manage செய்தால் SL Indian Ocean's 'maritime Singapore'-ஆக மாற இயக்கம் சாத்தியம்.
8. இலங்கையின் வளம் சார்ந்த பிரச்சினைகள் (water pollution, deforestation, soil erosion, CKDu) + பாதுகாப்பு நிறுவனங்கள் — விளக்குக. (8 புள்ளி)
விடைத் திட்டம் — சேர்க்க வேண்டிய புள்ளிகள்:
- Water pollution: Kelani River industrial, urban sewage, agro-chemicals
- Deforestation: chena, plantations, encroachment — 84%→29% in 140 years
- Soil erosion: tea slopes, abandoned tea estates
- CKDu: dry zone agricultural — agro-chemical + fluoride water hypothesis
- Sand mining: Ma Oya, Deduru Oya
- Coral bleaching: Hikkaduwa, Pigeon Island
- Institutions: CEA (pollution), Forest Dept, DWC, NARA, GSMB, SEA, MASL
இலங்கை - பல வள வகை kayam ஆனாலும் — over-extraction + pollution + poor governance + climate stress காரணமாக பெரும் சவால்கள்.
**(1) நீர் மாசு (Water Pollution).**
- **Kelani River** — industrial effluent (chemical, textile, leather tanneries), urban sewage Colombo, oil spillage. World's most polluted SL river. Affects drinking water for Colombo + Gampaha.
- **Mahaweli** — agro-chemicals from paddy areas, sediment loading.
- **Lagoons** — Negombo, Bolgoda — industrial + plastic + aquaculture pollution.
- **Coastal** — sewage outfalls, untreated discharge, plastic.
- **Groundwater** — Jaffna saltwater intrusion (over-pumping); agro-chemical leaching to aquifers (Anuradhapura dry zone).
**(2) காடழிப்பு (Deforestation).**
1881 ~84% → 1950 ~44% → 2020 ~29%. Drivers:
- **British colonial coffee/tea/rubber expansion** (19th c.) — cleared mid-country forests.
- **Chena (slash-and-burn shifting cultivation)** in dry zone.
- **Mahaweli + irrigation reservoirs** — flooded forests.
- **Population growth + agricultural expansion** — encroachment into protected areas.
- **Oil palm plantations** (21st c.) — Sabaragamuwa wet zone.
- **Illegal logging + sandalwood smuggling.**
- **Urban + road expansion.**
**(3) மண் அரிப்பு (Soil Erosion).**
- **Tea slopes (Central Highlands)** — pioneer British cleared steep slopes; today abandoned/poorly managed tea estates erode heavily.
- **Mountain agriculture** without terracing — Nuwara Eliya vegetable farms.
- **Construction + sand mining** — riverbank erosion.
- **Coastal erosion** — beach mining, harbour construction (Beruwala, Negombo).
Soil loss estimated 20-50 tons/ha/year in some slopes (sustainable < 5 t/ha/yr).
**(4) CKDu (Chronic Kidney Disease of unknown origin).**
Dry zone agricultural North Central + Uva Provinces (Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Mahiyangana, Padaviya). 100,000+ affected; thousands of premature deaths. Hypotheses:
- **Agro-chemical exposure** (glyphosate, pesticides) — Sri Lanka temporarily banned glyphosate 2014-18.
- **Fluoride + heavy metal in groundwater** (Cd, As).
- **Dehydration + heat stress** + recurrent low-level toxicity.
- **Hard water (Ca/Mg)** with synergistic agents.
Cause not definitively established; multi-factorial likely. Programmes: reverse osmosis water plants for affected villages, agricultural chemical regulation, kidney transplant + dialysis.
**(5) Sand Mining.**
Ma Oya, Deduru Oya, Kalu Ganga — illegal + over-regulated sand extraction for construction sand. Riverbed deepens → river bank collapse, saltwater intrusion, fish habitat loss. Government regulatory crackdowns intermittent.
**(6) Coral + Marine.**
Reef bleaching from sea temperature rise (2016, 2024 mass bleaching events) — Hikkaduwa, Pigeon Island (Trincomalee), Bar Reef (Kalpitiya). Over-fishing (anchovy, tuna). Plastic + chemical pollution. Coastal erosion (sand mining, harbour breakwaters).
**(7) Air Pollution + Solid Waste.**
Colombo + Kandy traffic congestion — particulate + NOx. Industrial emissions (Norochcholai coal). Open burning of waste. Garbage mountains (Meethotamulla 2017 collapse killed 30+).
**(8) Climate Change.**
Monsoon variability (more droughts + intense floods), sea level rise (vulnerable Hambantota + Colombo coastal), temperature rise affecting tea + coconut + rice yields.
**பாதுகாப்பு நிறுவனங்கள் (Conservation Institutions):**
1. **Central Environmental Authority (CEA)** — pollution control + EIA + National Environmental Act.
2. **Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC)** — National Parks + sanctuaries + wildlife crime.
3. **Forest Department (FD)** — Forest Reserves + reforestation.
4. **Geological Survey & Mines Bureau (GSMB)** — mineral exploration + mining licensing.
5. **Mahaweli Authority (MASL)** — water + irrigation + watershed.
6. **Sustainable Energy Authority (SEA)** — renewable energy promotion.
7. **NARA (National Aquatic Resources Research Agency)** — fisheries + marine science.
8. **NWS&DB (National Water Supply & Drainage Board)** — drinking water.
9. **Coast Conservation Department (CCD)** — coastal zone management.
10. **Department of Agriculture + DOA Provinces** — agricultural + soil.
11. **Ministry of Environment** — policy + Paris Agreement NDC.
12. **Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority (SLTDA) + Sri Lanka Sustainable Tourism Authority** — eco-tourism.
**International Cooperation:** UN FAO, UNDP, GEF, IUCN, WWF, Conservation International, ADB, World Bank, JICA, GTZ, USAID.
**(1) நீர் மாசு (Water Pollution).**
- **Kelani River** — industrial effluent (chemical, textile, leather tanneries), urban sewage Colombo, oil spillage. World's most polluted SL river. Affects drinking water for Colombo + Gampaha.
- **Mahaweli** — agro-chemicals from paddy areas, sediment loading.
- **Lagoons** — Negombo, Bolgoda — industrial + plastic + aquaculture pollution.
- **Coastal** — sewage outfalls, untreated discharge, plastic.
- **Groundwater** — Jaffna saltwater intrusion (over-pumping); agro-chemical leaching to aquifers (Anuradhapura dry zone).
**(2) காடழிப்பு (Deforestation).**
1881 ~84% → 1950 ~44% → 2020 ~29%. Drivers:
- **British colonial coffee/tea/rubber expansion** (19th c.) — cleared mid-country forests.
- **Chena (slash-and-burn shifting cultivation)** in dry zone.
- **Mahaweli + irrigation reservoirs** — flooded forests.
- **Population growth + agricultural expansion** — encroachment into protected areas.
- **Oil palm plantations** (21st c.) — Sabaragamuwa wet zone.
- **Illegal logging + sandalwood smuggling.**
- **Urban + road expansion.**
**(3) மண் அரிப்பு (Soil Erosion).**
- **Tea slopes (Central Highlands)** — pioneer British cleared steep slopes; today abandoned/poorly managed tea estates erode heavily.
- **Mountain agriculture** without terracing — Nuwara Eliya vegetable farms.
- **Construction + sand mining** — riverbank erosion.
- **Coastal erosion** — beach mining, harbour construction (Beruwala, Negombo).
Soil loss estimated 20-50 tons/ha/year in some slopes (sustainable < 5 t/ha/yr).
**(4) CKDu (Chronic Kidney Disease of unknown origin).**
Dry zone agricultural North Central + Uva Provinces (Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Mahiyangana, Padaviya). 100,000+ affected; thousands of premature deaths. Hypotheses:
- **Agro-chemical exposure** (glyphosate, pesticides) — Sri Lanka temporarily banned glyphosate 2014-18.
- **Fluoride + heavy metal in groundwater** (Cd, As).
- **Dehydration + heat stress** + recurrent low-level toxicity.
- **Hard water (Ca/Mg)** with synergistic agents.
Cause not definitively established; multi-factorial likely. Programmes: reverse osmosis water plants for affected villages, agricultural chemical regulation, kidney transplant + dialysis.
**(5) Sand Mining.**
Ma Oya, Deduru Oya, Kalu Ganga — illegal + over-regulated sand extraction for construction sand. Riverbed deepens → river bank collapse, saltwater intrusion, fish habitat loss. Government regulatory crackdowns intermittent.
**(6) Coral + Marine.**
Reef bleaching from sea temperature rise (2016, 2024 mass bleaching events) — Hikkaduwa, Pigeon Island (Trincomalee), Bar Reef (Kalpitiya). Over-fishing (anchovy, tuna). Plastic + chemical pollution. Coastal erosion (sand mining, harbour breakwaters).
**(7) Air Pollution + Solid Waste.**
Colombo + Kandy traffic congestion — particulate + NOx. Industrial emissions (Norochcholai coal). Open burning of waste. Garbage mountains (Meethotamulla 2017 collapse killed 30+).
**(8) Climate Change.**
Monsoon variability (more droughts + intense floods), sea level rise (vulnerable Hambantota + Colombo coastal), temperature rise affecting tea + coconut + rice yields.
**பாதுகாப்பு நிறுவனங்கள் (Conservation Institutions):**
1. **Central Environmental Authority (CEA)** — pollution control + EIA + National Environmental Act.
2. **Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC)** — National Parks + sanctuaries + wildlife crime.
3. **Forest Department (FD)** — Forest Reserves + reforestation.
4. **Geological Survey & Mines Bureau (GSMB)** — mineral exploration + mining licensing.
5. **Mahaweli Authority (MASL)** — water + irrigation + watershed.
6. **Sustainable Energy Authority (SEA)** — renewable energy promotion.
7. **NARA (National Aquatic Resources Research Agency)** — fisheries + marine science.
8. **NWS&DB (National Water Supply & Drainage Board)** — drinking water.
9. **Coast Conservation Department (CCD)** — coastal zone management.
10. **Department of Agriculture + DOA Provinces** — agricultural + soil.
11. **Ministry of Environment** — policy + Paris Agreement NDC.
12. **Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority (SLTDA) + Sri Lanka Sustainable Tourism Authority** — eco-tourism.
**International Cooperation:** UN FAO, UNDP, GEF, IUCN, WWF, Conservation International, ADB, World Bank, JICA, GTZ, USAID.
🔥 மீட்டல் மையம்
பரீட்சைக்கு முன் இறுதி ஒரு நிமிடம் — மறக்கக்கூடாதவை மட்டும்.
- <b>SL land 65,610 km²; EEZ 517,000 km² (7×).</b> Coast 1,340 km.
- <b>நீர்:</b> SW (May-Sep) + NE (Oct-Feb) monsoons. Avg ~1860 mm. Wet zone 5000+, dry <1250.
- <b>103 ஆறுகள்.</b> Mahaweli 335 km (longest); Kelani 145; Walawe 138.
- <b>4000+ ancient tanks.</b> Parakrama Samudra (Polonnaruwa, 2500 ha) largest ancient; Senanayake Samudra (Gal Oya, 1950s) largest modern.
- <b>காடு 29%</b> (84% in 1881). UNESCO: Sinharaja (1988) + Central Highlands (2010 — Horton Plains + Knuckles + Peak Wilderness).
- <b>NPs:</b> Yala (leopard density world #1), Wilpattu (largest area), Wasgomuwa, Horton Plains, Bundala (Ramsar), Udawalawe (elephants), Minneriya (gathering).
- <b>மண்:</b> RBE (dry zone), RYP (wet zone hills), Alluvial (rivers), Solonchak (coast), Lithosol (mountain). 14 types.
- <b>Graphite:</b> Bogala/Kahatagaha/Ragedara — world's highest purity vein (95-98%).
- <b>Gems:</b> Ratnapura "City of Gems"; SL world #1 for Cat's Eye + Blue Sapphire.
- <b>Mineral sands:</b> Pulmoddai (Trincomalee NE) — ilmenite, rutile, zircon, monazite. LMSL.
- <b>Limestone:</b> Aruwakkalu (Puttalam) — Holcim cement.
- <b>Phosphate:</b> Eppawala. <b>Salt:</b> Hambantota+Puttalam pans.
- <b>Energy mix:</b> coal 35% + hydro 30% + oil 20% + RE 15%. Target 70% RE by 2030.
- <b>Norochcholai coal 900 MW</b> (CMEC 2011). <b>Mahaweli hydro Victoria 210 MW.</b> Mannar wind 100 MW.
- <b>Sapugaskanda oil refinery</b> (1969, 50,000 bpsd).
அலகின் முதுகெலும்பு — கருத்துக்களும் தொடர்புகளும்.
- <b>NEXT-LEVEL Numbers:</b> Mahaweli 335km · Kelani 145km · Parakrama Samudra 2500ha · Wilpattu 131,693ha · Bogala graphite shaft 560m · Cat's Eye SL #1 · Norochcholai 900MW (3×300) · Victoria 210MW · Mannar 100MW + 250+ expansion · Soorya Bala Sangramaya 700MW solar · Total hydro ~1700MW.
- <b>Monsoons - விரிவாக:</b> SW (Yala) — May-Sep — wet zone + SW coast; gives wet zone its 5000+ mm. NE (Maha) — Oct-Feb — dry zone + NE; gives dry zone its main rain. Inter-monsoon (Mar-Apr, Oct) — convectional rain.
- <b>Ancient Tanks - விரிவாக:</b> Vasabha (67-111 AD), Mahasen, Dhatusena 5th c. (Kala Wewa), Parakramabahu I 12th c. (Parakrama Samudra "Sea of Parakrama"). Tank cascade system in dry zone catchments. Modern: Senanayake Samudra (D.S. Senanayake era, Gal Oya, 1950s).
- <b>UNESCO Heritage - விரிவாக:</b> Sinharaja (1988) — 11,187 ha lowland rainforest, 60% endemic plants; Kudawa entry. Central Highlands (2010) — Horton Plains (Pidurutalagala 2524m, World's End), Knuckles ("Dumbara"), Peak Wilderness (Adams Peak/Sri Pada catchment). Cultural UNESCO: Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Sigiriya, Dambulla, Kandy, Galle Fort.
- <b>Major National Parks - விரிவாக:</b> Yala (Block 1-5; leopard density highest world; 977 km²), Wilpattu (131,693 ha "land of lakes"; largest area), Wasgomuwa, Horton Plains (UNESCO; 3160ha cloud forest+grassland), Bundala (Ramsar; flamingos), Udawalawe (308km²; 400+ elephants; Elephant Transit Home), Kumana (Yala East; birds), Minneriya (88km²; "gathering" 200-300 elephants Aug-Sep tank reservoir), Gal Oya (Senanayake Samudra; largest reservoir), Maduru Oya.
- <b>Graphite - விரிவாக:</b> Vein graphite forms in hydrothermal cracks; SL geological uniqueness. Bogala (Aruggammana, Kegalle; 560m deep; since 1880s); Kahatagaha-Kolongaha (state mine); Ragedara. SL ~1% world quantity but ~near-monopoly of pure vein. Lithium-ion battery anode demand booming.
- <b>Gems - விரிவாக:</b> Ratnapura (Sabaragamuwa); Elahera (Matale); Okkampitiya (Monaragala); Pelmadulla. Blue sapphire "Ceylon Sapphire" (Princess Diana/Kate Middleton ring 12 carat; Logan Sapphire 423 ct), Star Sapphire (Star of India 563 ct in American Museum of Natural History), Cat's Eye Chrysoberyl (SL world #1), Alexandrite, Star Ruby, Padparadscha (rare pink-orange). NGJA regulates; export ~$150-300M/yr.
- <b>Mineral Sands - விரிவாக:</b> Pulmoddai (Trincomalee NE coast); LMSL operates. Ilmenite (FeTiO₃ → TiO₂ paint pigment), Rutile (TiO₂ premium — aircraft/surgical), Zircon (ZrSiO₄ — ceramics/nuclear), Monazite (REE + thorium), Garnet (abrasives), Sillimanite. ~70,000 tons/yr export to China/Japan/USA.
- <b>Cement Limestone:</b> Aruwakkalu Puttalam — Holcim Lanka/INSEE; biggest plant. KKS Jaffna (historic). Eppawala. Cement + clinker partial self-sufficiency.
- <b>Mahaweli Hydropower - விரிவாக:</b> Victoria 210MW (UK 1985), Kotmale 201MW, Randenigala 126MW, Rantembe 51MW, Ulhitiya-Rathkinda, Bowatenna, Polgolla. + Laxapana (Castlereagh-Maussakelle): New Laxapana 100MW, Wimalasurendra 50, Old Laxapana 50, Polpitiya 75. + Samanalawewa 120, Kukule 70. Total ~1700MW.
- <b>Coal + Oil:</b> Norochcholai/Lakvijaya 900MW (CMEC China $1.35B; commissioned 2011-14; ~35% national electricity). Sapugaskanda Refinery (CPC 1969 Iranian tech; 50,000 bpsd). Kelanitissa CCGT 330MW. 100% coal+oil imported.
- <b>Renewables - விரிவாக:</b> Mannar Wind (Adani/CEB JV 100MW 2024; expansion 250+); Hambantota Welikanda Solar 100MW; Soorya Bala Sangramaya rooftop ~700MW; biomass (rice husk, dendro Gliricidia); geothermal nil. 2030 target 70% RE.
- <b>Mahaweli Programme - விரிவாக:</b> 1968 master plan; 1977 Accelerated MDP under JR Jayewardene; UK/Germany/Sweden/Japan/WB/ADB aid. 5 dams Polgolla→Kotmale→Victoria→Randenigala→Rantembe. Hydro 700MW + irrigation 365,000ha + resettlement 1M+. New towns Dehiattakandiya, Girandurukotte. MASL manages. Controversies: deforestation, displacement, ethnic tension.
பரீட்சைக்கு முந்தின இரவு முழு அலகையும் ஓட்டிப் பார்.
- <b>அலகின் வரிசை:</b> Water (rain+rivers+tanks) → Forests (29%+ UNESCO Sinharaja/Central Highlands) → Soils (RBE/RYP/Alluvial) → Minerals (Graphite/Gems/Sands/Limestone) → Maritime (EEZ 517,000 km²) → Energy (mix 35-30-20-15) → Conservation challenges.
- <b>எளிதில் தவறும் ஜோடிகள்:</b> (1) Mahaweli 335 km longest. (2) Parakrama Samudra (Polonnaruwa) ancient vs Senanayake Samudra (Gal Oya) modern. (3) Sinharaja 1988 + Central Highlands 2010 = UNESCO Natural. (4) Yala = leopards; Wilpattu = area; Udawalawe = elephants; Minneriya = Gathering. (5) Graphite அளவில் சிறு (~1%) ஆனால் தரத்தில் #1. (6) Ratnapura = gems (NOT Anuradhapura ancient capital). (7) Bogala = Kegalle (NOT Anuradhapura). (8) Norochcholai = coal; Sapugaskanda = refining. (9) Eppawala = phosphate (NOT limestone). (10) EEZ 517,000 km² = 7× nation; Coast 1,340 km.
- <b>Princess Diana ring</b> = Ceylon Blue Sapphire (12-carat). Now Kate Middleton/Catherine Princess of Wales. SL gem advertising.
- <b>2030 RE target</b> = 70%. Currently ~45-50%. Massive solar + wind + grid expansion needed.
- <b>CKDu</b> = dry zone (Anuradhapura/Polonnaruwa/Mahiyangana) chronic kidney disease; agro-chemical/fluoride water suspect; 100,000+ affected.
- <b>கட்டுரைக்குத் தயார்:</b> (1) Water vs rain+rivers+tanks. (2) Forests + UNESCO. (3) Mineral vs Graphite+Gems+Sands+Limestone. (4) Energy + 2030 RE target. (5) Mahaweli Development Programme. (6) Sinharaja. (7) EEZ + UNCLOS. (8) Pollution + conservation institutions.