📝 பயிற்சி

**"Development" கருத்தாக்கம் கடந்த 75 ஆண்டுகளில் radically evolved.**

**பழைய பார்வை (1950s-70s):** WW2-க்குப் பின் Marshall Plan-ன் வெற்றியும், Soviet 5-year plan industrialization-ம் ஐரோப்பா-USA-ஐ "developed" என்றும், மற்றவை "underdeveloped/developing" என்றும் வகைப்படுத்தியது. முக்கிய அளவீடு **GDP growth** + **industrialization** + **infrastructure**. நோக்கம்: "catching up to West." Truman President's 1949 inaugural address articulated "development assistance" concept.

Top-down state planning, foreign aid, large dams/factories/highways. Rostow's "Stages of Economic Growth" (1960) — traditional society → preconditions → take-off → maturity → mass consumption. India 5-year plans, China 5-year plans similar.

**1970s-80s critique:** Despite GDP growth, vast populations remained poor, illiterate, sick. Brazil "economic miracle" 1968-73 (GDP +10%) but inequality + poverty deepened. Pakistan, Mexico, Nigeria — GDP up, malnutrition up. Critique: GDP measured wealth but not welfare; missed distribution + non-economic dimensions.

**நவீன பார்வை (1980s onwards):**

**Mahbub ul Haq + Amartya Sen (UNDP 1990)** introduced **Human Development Index (HDI)** — first widely-used multi-dimensional measure:
- Health (life expectancy)
- Knowledge (years of schooling)
- Living standards (GNI/capita PPP)

**Amartya Sen's "Development as Freedom" (1999):** Development = expanding people's substantive freedoms / capabilities to live lives they value. Not just wealth but ability to be educated, healthy, politically participate, choose careers. Famine = not just food shortage but failure of entitlements.

**Brundtland 1987:** Added sustainability — present needs without compromising future. Three pillars.

**SDGs 2015-2030 (17 goals):** consolidated multi-dimensional view officially globally.

**Indicators — Detailed:**

**(அ) Economic Indicators:**
- **GDP (Gross Domestic Product):** total value of goods + services produced within country. SL ~$80B.
- **GNI (Gross National Income):** GDP + net income from abroad. SL ~$75B; per capita ~$3,800.
- **PPP-adjusted GNI:** purchasing power parity adjusts for cost of living. Better cross-country comparison.
- **GDP growth rate:** annual %. China 1990-2010 ~10%/yr; SL pre-2022 ~5%; 2022 = -7.8%.
- **Per capita income:** GDP ÷ population. USA $80k; SL $3.8k; Burundi $200.
- **Inflation, unemployment, poverty headcount (% below $2.15/day), Gini coefficient (inequality).**

**(ஆ) Social Indicators:**
- **Life Expectancy at Birth:** Japan 84, SL 77, Niger 60, Sierra Leone 55.
- **Infant Mortality Rate (IMR):** Finland 2/1000, SL 6/1000, Afghanistan 50, Sierra Leone 80. Strongest single development indicator.
- **Literacy rate (15+):** SL 93%, Norway ~100%, India 74%, Niger 35%.
- **School enrollment** — primary (basic), secondary, tertiary.
- **Access to clean water + sanitation** (SDG 6).
- **Doctors + nurses per 1000.**
- **Gender Development Index (GDI), Gender Inequality Index (GII).**
- **Mean years of schooling.**

**(இ) Environmental Indicators:**
- **CO₂ emissions per capita:** USA 14 tons, Qatar 37, EU avg 6, India 1.9, SL 1, Burkina Faso 0.2.
- **Forest cover %:** Finland 73%, Bhutan 71%, SL 29%, Bangladesh 11%.
- **Renewable energy %.**
- **Air quality (PM2.5).**
- **Water stress index** (UN-FAO).
- **Environmental Performance Index (EPI)** — Yale + Columbia annual.
- **Ecological Footprint** — Global Footprint Network.

**Composite Indices:**
- **HDI:** Health + Knowledge + Living. 0-1. SL 0.78 High; Switzerland #1 (0.967).
- **PQLI:** IMR + Life expectancy at 1 + Literacy. 0-100. Morris 1979.
- **Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI):** HDI penalized for inequality.
- **Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI):** UN — 10 indicators across 3 dimensions.
- **Happy Planet Index (HPI):** well-being + life expectancy + ecological footprint.

இவ்வாறு பழைய GDP-centric → நவீன holistic multi-dimensional + sustainable view-ஆக evolved.

**Brundtland Commission 1987 (Our Common Future):** "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Defined by Norwegian PM Gro Harlem Brundtland's UN commission. Foundation of modern sustainability discourse.

**3 Pillars (Triple Bottom Line):**

1. **Economic (Profit):** prosperity, growth, jobs, innovation. Without economic capacity, social + environmental goals lack funding. But growth shouldn't externalize costs.

2. **Social (People):** equity, education, health, gender equality, social cohesion, indigenous rights, justice. Development must benefit all, not few.

3. **Environmental (Planet):** clean air, water, biodiversity, climate stability, sustainable resource use. The basis of all human activity.

**Pillars must balance.** Excessive focus on one undermines others — e.g. China rapid economic growth caused environmental devastation; Soviet planning caused social repression.

**Visualization:** Often shown as three overlapping circles; sustainability = intersection. Or as concentric circles: environment encloses social, which encloses economic (because environment is foundational).

**History — From MDGs to SDGs:**

**MDGs (Millennium Development Goals, 2000-2015):** UN Millennium Summit 2000. 8 goals:
1. Eradicate extreme poverty & hunger
2. Universal primary education
3. Gender equality + empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Global partnership for development

MDG achievements: extreme poverty halved (1.9B → 836M), primary school enrollment up, gender gap closing. But uneven — sub-Saharan Africa lagged.

**SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals, 2015-2030):** Replaced MDGs at UN Sustainable Development Summit Sept 2015 ("Agenda 2030"). 17 goals, 169 specific targets:

1. **No Poverty**
2. **Zero Hunger**
3. **Good Health & Well-being**
4. **Quality Education**
5. **Gender Equality**
6. **Clean Water & Sanitation**
7. **Affordable & Clean Energy**
8. **Decent Work & Economic Growth**
9. **Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure**
10. **Reduced Inequalities**
11. **Sustainable Cities & Communities**
12. **Responsible Consumption & Production**
13. **Climate Action**
14. **Life Below Water**
15. **Life On Land**
16. **Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions**
17. **Partnerships for the Goals**

Key differences from MDGs:
- **Universal** — for ALL countries, not just developing.
- **Holistic** — integrates environment + economy + society.
- **More ambitious** — "eradicate" poverty, not just "reduce."
- **Indicators** — 232 indicators officially.
- **Accountability** — voluntary national reviews at HLPF (High-Level Political Forum).

**Country Examples:**

- **Costa Rica:** 99% electricity from renewables (hydro + geothermal + wind + solar). Carbon neutral target 2050. National parks 25% land.
- **Bhutan:** World's first carbon-negative country (forests absorb more CO₂ than emit). GNH (Gross National Happiness) policy framework — 4 pillars (sustainable dev + culture + environment + good governance).
- **Denmark:** 50%+ wind electricity; ambitious 70% emission reduction by 2030.
- **Norway:** 80%+ new car sales EVs (sovereign wealth fund + carbon tax). World's 1st HDI for years.
- **Iceland:** 85% renewable; geothermal heating; gender equality #1.
- **Singapore:** Green Plan 2030; vertical farming; smart city tech.
- **Sweden:** First country to set 1.5°C target law.
- **Rwanda:** Strong environmental policy post-genocide rebuilding; plastic bag ban; ICT-led leapfrog.

**Challenges:**

1. **Trade-offs:** economic growth vs environment (China's dilemma); cheap goods vs labour rights (Bangladesh garments).
2. **Financing gap:** SDGs need $2.5-3 trillion/year extra; developing countries cannot fund alone.
3. **COVID-19 setback (2020-22):** poverty rose, learning losses, healthcare strained, SDG indicators regressed.
4. **Climate crisis:** worsening weather, sea-level rise, refugees.
5. **Inequality:** global Gini rising; wealth concentration.
6. **Conflict:** Ukraine war, Gaza, Sudan disrupt SDG progress.
7. **Technology disruption:** AI, automation may displace workers faster than retraining.
8. **Geopolitical fragmentation:** US-China rivalry, slowing multilateralism.

**Emerging Concepts:**
- **Green economy:** decoupling growth from environmental damage.
- **Circular economy:** design out waste, reuse materials.
- **ESG (Environmental, Social, Governance) investing:** mainstream finance considers sustainability.
- **Net-zero by 2050:** ~140 countries pledged (UN Race to Zero).
- **Just transition:** climate action that protects workers + vulnerable.
- **Doughnut Economics:** Kate Raworth — between social foundation and ecological ceiling.

**Sri Lanka & SDGs:** Sustainable Development Council (PMD) coordinates. Strengths: high HDI, female education, healthcare access. Weaknesses: climate vulnerability, deforestation, marine pollution, inequality, 2022 crisis setback. UN Country Team supports.

"Developed" vs "developing" — useful but increasingly contested binary. Modern framework recognizes continuous spectrum + multiple intermediate categories.

**Traditional Distinction:**

| Aspect | Developed | Developing |
|---|---|---|
| **GNI/capita** | > $13,845 (WB 2024 threshold) | < $13,845 |
| **HDI** | > 0.8 (Very High) | < 0.7 typical |
| **Life expectancy** | 78-84 | 55-75 |
| **Literacy** | ~100% | 40-93% |
| **IMR (/1000)** | 2-5 | 20-80 |
| **Urbanization** | 80%+ | 30-60% |
| **Industry structure** | Services 60-75% + Mfg 20-25% + Agri <5% | Agriculture 20-50% + Services + Industry |
| **Population growth** | 0-0.5% | 1-3% |
| **Demographic stage** | 4-5 | 2-3 |
| **Fertility** | <2 | 2-5 |
| **Tech adoption** | High | Variable |
| **Examples** | USA, UK, Japan, Germany, France, Australia, Canada, S.Korea, Singapore, Norway | India, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Indonesia, Vietnam, Mexico, Pakistan, SL, Ghana, Kenya |

**World Bank Income Classification (more nuanced):**
- **High Income:** > $13,845/yr — 86 economies. USA, EU, Japan, Australia, Israel, Korea, Saudi.
- **Upper-Middle Income:** $4,466-$13,845 — China, Brazil, Russia, Argentina, Turkey, Malaysia, Thailand.
- **Lower-Middle Income:** $1,136-$4,465 — India, SL, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Egypt, Nigeria.
- **Low Income:** < $1,135 — Burundi, Niger, DRC, Madagascar, Afghanistan, Yemen.

**UN Development Classification:**
- **Developed economies:** ~37 countries (WESP).
- **Economies in transition:** former Soviet bloc transitioning to market.
- **Developing economies:** rest.
- **LDCs (Least Developed Countries):** 46 countries (UN-defined by low income + weak human assets + economic vulnerability). Examples: Bangladesh (graduating 2026), Nepal, Ethiopia, Yemen, Somalia, Haiti.

**HDI Classification (UNDP):**
- **Very High HDI (> 0.8):** Switzerland, Norway, Iceland, HK, Australia, Denmark, Sweden — 66 countries.
- **High (0.7-0.8):** Sri Lanka (0.78), Mexico, Turkey, Russia, China, Thailand — 49 countries.
- **Medium (0.55-0.7):** India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Indonesia, Honduras — 44 countries.
- **Low (<0.55):** Chad, Niger, S.Sudan, Burundi, Mali, Mozambique — 32 countries.

**Intermediate Categories:**

**(அ) NICs (Newly Industrialised Countries) / "Four Asian Tigers":**
S.Korea + Taiwan + Singapore + Hong Kong — 1960s-90s rapid industrialization. Strategy: export-oriented manufacturing, education investment, state-business cooperation, FDI attraction. Reached developed status. "Tiger Cubs" — Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia — follow-on growth.

**(ஆ) BRICS Emerging Economies:** Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa. Fast growth + large size; expanded 2024 (BRICS+) to UAE, Iran, Egypt, Ethiopia. Geopolitical alternative to G7. China + India = nearly 40% of global population.

**(இ) Asian + African "Lions":** Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Ghana — next wave high-growth markets.

**(ஈ) Petroleum-rich states:** Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Kuwait — high GNI per capita but uneven HDI (gender gaps, migrant labour rights). "Resource curse" risks.

**(உ) Post-Soviet transitional:** Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Central Asian republics — market transition with mixed outcomes.

**(ஊ) Conflict-affected fragile states:** Yemen, Syria, Afghanistan, Somalia, S.Sudan, Haiti, Venezuela. Often HDI declining; humanitarian crises.

**Sri Lanka's Position:**
- **WB:** Lower-middle income ($3,800/capita) — was upper-middle briefly before 2022 crisis.
- **HDI:** High (0.78, rank #78). South Asia's highest after Maldives.
- **Demographic:** Stage 3-4 transitional, aging.
- **Economy:** services 58%, industry 30%, agriculture 12%. Diversified but small.
- **Strengths:** female education, healthcare, life expectancy 77.
- **Weaknesses:** debt crisis, brain drain, ethnic divides, narrow export base.

**Critiques of "Developed/Developing" Binary:**

1. **Static labels:** Masks continuous change. China was "developing" 1980 — now upper-middle. South Korea was "developing" 1960 — now developed.

2. **Heterogeneity within categories:** "Developing" includes both Nigeria ($2K) and Mexico ($10K) — vast differences.

3. **Multiple dimensions:** A country can be rich (UAE) but low on gender equality; or moderate income (Costa Rica) but high environmental performance.

4. **Colonial baggage:** "Underdeveloped" implies inferiority; "developing" assumes Western model as endpoint.

5. **WB has dropped binary** in publications since 2016 — uses income classifications.

6. **"Global South vs Global North"** — alternative geographic framing, also imperfect.

**Modern usage:** Many institutions now prefer specific indicators ("low-income countries", "emerging markets", "high HDI") over binary terms. SL self-describes as "middle-income developing nation."